An evaluation of programs and leadership practices for effective

Abilene Christian University Digital Commons @ ACU Electronic Theses and Dissertations Electronic Theses and Dissertations 7-2021 An Evaluation of Programs and Leadership Practices for Effective Dropout Prevention Nicole C. West Abilene Christian University, ncw16w@acu.edu Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.edu/etd Part of the Educational Assessment, Evaluation, and Research Commons, Educational Leadership Commons, Educational Methods Commons, Elementary and Middle and Secondary Education Administration Commons, Leadership Studies Commons, Organization Development Commons, Other Educational Administration and Supervision Commons, Secondary Education and Teaching Commons, and the Urban Education Commons Recommended Citation West, Nicole C., "An Evaluation of Programs and Leadership Practices for Effective Dropout Prevention" (2021). Digital Commons @ ACU, Electronic Theses and Dissertations. This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Electronic Theses and Dissertations at Digital Commons @ ACU.

It has been accepted for inclusion in Electronic Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ ACU. This dissertation, directed and approved by the c andidate’s committee, has been accepted by the College of Graduate and Professional Studies of Abilene Christian University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Education in Organizati onal Leadership Dr. Nannette Glenn, Dean of the College of Graduate and Professional Studies Date 06 / 10 / 2021 Dissertation Committee: Dr. Lisa Hobson, PhD, Chair Dr.

Katherine Yeager, PhD Dr. Andrew Lumpe, Phd Doc ID: da94c2aec1226ee3704a5cebf720e1a7545b3868 Abilene Christian University School of Educational Leadership An Evaluation of Programs and Leadership Practices for Effective Dropout Prevention A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education in Organizational Leadership by Nicole C. West July 2021 i Dedication I dedicate this study to my late father, Rudolph Washington. This journey started nearly five years ago.

For those who know me and my family, completing a doctorate was my father’s vision for me. He always referred to me as Dr. A dream of his I deferred but vowed to complete at the right time. It turns out, there is never a right time.

When I finally started, I was balancing getting my son, Cameron, off to college and my daughter, Chelsey, was starting her freshman year in high school. Six years after his death, I am standing here accomplished. This is as much his accomplishment as it is mine. I love you, Daddy! ii Acknowledgments Much has been afforded to me throughout this pursuit.

I appreciate and acknowledge my dissertation committee members, starting with my chair, Dr. Lisa Hobson, who pushed me toward excellence, and Dr. Katherine Yeager, who encouraged me to challenge the very system I sought to fix and to boldly recommend change. I extend a heartfelt thanks to Dr.

Andrew Lumpe, who supported me in the quantitative component of my research. By providing straightforward feedback, he taught me that a succinct analysis is easier to understand and pushed me and my research to the finish line. For this, I will be forever grateful. In the nearly five years it took me to complete the program, the world was turned upside down with a global pandemic and civil unrest.

I, along with my family, experienced many victories as well as a fair number of disappointments. I want to give honor to God, first and foremost, for making sure I persisted. God carried me when I didn’t think I could keep going— suffering the loss of my Aunt Alberta Sinette, my Soror and friend, and one of my biggest fans. I can hear her say, “Girl you are doing it.” Well Auntie, I did it.

I appreciate Aunt Joyce Samuel, another of my biggest fans, for her loving cheers. I am so grateful and blessed to have a family who believes in me and encouraged me to start the program as they approached their own milestones. Words are insufficient to express my appreciation to my loving and supporting husband, Anthony West, who provided feedback, asked questions about my research, and served as an unofficial committee member; and my children, Cameron West and Chelsey West, who have been by my side—sometimes as study partners. It is so inspirational to watch my children grow into responsible young adults with Cameron graduating from Oklahoma University months before my defense and Chelsey completing her freshman year at Louisiana State University.

iii My mother, Norma Washington, is a strong woman who taught me that I could be anything I aspired to and inspired me to instill that same value into my children. I am grateful for her teachings and endowing me with her strength. I also acknowledge my mother-in-law, Margaret West, and my sister-in-law, Carisa West, who kept me focused on my dream. Lastly, I would be remiss if I didn’t thank my village of friends, who are also my sisters.

They gave me strength and reminded me every day to never settle for less than excellence. Our motto is, “We don’t just have high standards, we collectively set the bar!” I, Dr. West, especially acknowledge and dedicate my research to the community where I grew up, to those students who face the most insurmountable obstacles to realizing their potential, and to the servant leaders in our schools who are there every day, motivating and encouraging our students to persist in their education. iv © Copyright by Nicole West (2021) All Rights Reserved v Abstract This mixed-methods study explored a problem within dropout research which often fails to link characteristics of student subgroups with effective dropout interventions.

Considering the characteristics identified in the literature of at-risk learners, the conceptual framework for this study combined the theory of self-efficacy and leadership with emphasis on servant leadership. The purpose of the study was to evaluate dropout intervention and prevention programs in two high schools by examining intervention and leadership practices for students at risk of dropping out of high school. Through causal-comparative and phenomenological approaches, this investigation focused on identifying dropout factors targeted in the intervention and prevention initiatives, differences in archived dropout rates over a period of 12 years, and differences in teachers’ perceptions of their leaders’ servant behaviors of stewardship, authenticity, standing back, and empowerment. The analysis of interviews with teachers and principals in a large school district in Texas resulted in three major themes and seven subthemes that described the nature of the intervention and prevention initiatives, factors targeted, roles of teachers, leadership behaviors, and types of services afforded to students.

Hypothesis testing using a Mann Whitney U test resulted in no statistically significant differences in how teachers from two schools perceived the servant leadership behaviors of their school leaders. The comparison of dropout rates between the two schools revealed a statistically significant difference, although both schools’ dropout rates increased postintervention. Recommendations for the district and schools included instituting on-the-job credit programs in conjunction with the vocational curriculum and flexible schedules for students to complete high school requirements. Keywords: dropout, dropout prevention and intervention, dropout factors, at risk, self- efficacy, leadership vi Table of Contents Acknowledgments.v List of Tables.

ix List of Figures .1 Statement of the Problem .6 Purpose of the Study .11 Rationale for the Study .11 Definition of Key Terms .14 Chapter 2: Literature Review .16 Literature Search Methods .17 The Dropout Profile: Historical and Current Representations .20 Race and Ethnicity.26 Absenteeism and Grades.26 Motivation and Personality.30 Intervention Practices: National and Local .32 National Programs and Strategies .34 Programs and Strategies in Texas .37 Outcomes of Select Interventions .39 Outcomes of Programs in Texas.39 Outcomes of National Programs.41 The Role of Leadership in Dropout Intervention .43 Leadership and Cultural Considerations in Dropout Intervention/Prevention .53 Conceptual Framework Model and the Design of the Study .58 Chapter 3: Research Method .60 Research Design and Method .60 Quantitative Component Design and Methods .66 Qualitative Component Design and Methods .69 Population and Sample .72 Quantitative Component Sample .72 Qualitative Component Sample .77 Quantitative Data Collection and Analysis Procedures .79 Operational Definitions of Variables .79 Data Collection and Analysis.80 Qualitative Data Collection and Analysis Procedures .83 Methods for Establishing Trustworthiness .88 IRB Approval and Procedures .95 Level 1 Themes: Intervention and Prevention Strategy .1: Whole-School Approach.2: Communication, the Foundation of Preventive Strategies .101 Level 2 Themes: Leadership Practices Targeting Factors. Setting the Example .112 Level 3 Themes: Roles of Teachers and Leaders .1: Facilitator of Services for Student Success .117 Summary of Themes .120 Summary of Results for Qualitative Research Questions .122 viii Research Question 1 .124 Summary of Results for the Quantitative Research Component .126 Analysis of Performance for Schools AM and BW .127 Summary of Performance Analysis Between Schools.128 Chapter 5: Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations .129 Discussion of Findings in Relation to Past Literature .161 Recommendations/Implications for Practice .161 Implications/Recommendations for Research .171 Appendix A: Cross Reference for Mixed-Methods Research .195 Appendix B: The Servant Leadership Survey .197 Appendix C: Dropout Interview Protocol and Dropout Program Observation Tool .202 Appendix D: IRB Approval Letter .209 Appendix E: Invitation Letter to Survey Participants .210 Appendix F: Invitation Letter to Interview Participants .211 Appendix G: Consent Form .212 ix List of Tables Table 1. Research Questions and Data Collection by Participant Type. Leading Dropout Factors for Both Schools.

Sublevel Themes and Cross Referencing. Cross Reference for Mixed Methods Research .195 x List of Figures Figure 1. Conceptual Framework: Self-Efficacy and Leadership Theories. Sequence of the Explanatory-Sequential Approach .64 1 Chapter 1: Introduction Dropout rates, the effects, and the related causative factors are frequently discussed in schools, organizations, and society due to their impacts on these entities.

The seriousness of the topic is evident in the frequency of dropouts annually. According to the U. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), the dropout rate decreased: (a) for all noninstitutionalized students ages 16–24 from 10.5% for Black students; and (c) from 27.2% for Hispanic students (McFarland et al. Despite the declines, dropout rates for students of color remain higher than those of White students.

This scenario is apparent as a local problem in the Southeast School District (pseudonym) where national and school data on the Internet show that African American students had the highest longitudinal dropout rate among the major ethnic groups. This rate represents a 2.5% difference in the 12.3% for White students. The impact of dropouts on the economy is among concerns seen in the literature along with intervention efforts to address student dropout. High school dropouts became a concern during the 1960s after: (a) the appearance of comprehensive high schools, (b) diploma certification became an entry requirement for employment, and (c) rates of high school enrollment and completion increased (Chappell et al., 2015; Doll et al.

The beginning conversations about school dropouts painted a negative view that remains today (Stark & Noel, 2015). According to early reports, dropouts represented a threat to society and were labeled as antisocial, rebellious, and mentally inferior (Doll et al. Leading educational organizations, sociologists, and others characterized dropouts as unwanted individuals and projected their future as becoming delinquents, drug addicts, illegitimate parents, and social service-dependents (Cervantes, 2016). Currently, personal, and 2 economic disadvantages associated with school dropouts continue to negatively impact communities.

These disadvantages include abuse, poverty, low self-esteem, a shorter life span, and criminal activities (Latif et al., 2015; Meškauskienė & Guoba, 2016). Although some early views remain regarding school dropouts, considering current views and definitions of dropout for planning interventions is important. Definitions vary according to the perspectives of governmental and other agencies, school officials, and some researchers (Child Trends, 2015; McFarland et al. The definition also varies based on specific indicators referenced in discussions.

In describing high school dropout rates, Child Trends referred to dropouts as “individuals, ages 16 to 24, who are not currently enrolled in school and have not completed high school or obtained a GED” (Child Trends, 2015, para. The NCES publishes a similar definition for the indicator of dropout rates. In addition to referring to 16– to 24–year–old students as youth, NCES specifies documents that indicate completion as a diploma or high school credential (McFarland et al.