Luận án nghiên cứu tác động của Proposal 02-06 tại Michigan

A Dissertation entitled The Examination of the Impact of Michigan’s Proposal 02-06 on Undergraduate Admissions at Michigan Public Universities by Bernice D. Metcalfe-Ball Submitted to the Graduate Faculty as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy Degree in Higher Education __________________________________________ David Meabon, Ph., Chair __________________________________________ Shanda Gore, Ed., Committee Member __________________________________________ Daphne W., Committee Member __________________________________________ Ronald Opp, Ph., Committee Member __________________________________________ Dr. Patricia Komuniecki, Dean College of Graduate Studies The University of Toledo August, 2013 Copyright 2013, Bernice D. Metcalfe-Ball This document is copyrighted material.

Under copyright law, no parts of this document may be reproduced without the express permission of the author. An Abstract of The Examination of the Impact of Michigan’s Proposal 02-06 on Undergraduate Admissions at Michigan Public Universities by Bernice D. Metcalfe-Ball Submitted to the Graduate Faculty in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy Degree in Higher Education The University of Toledo August 2013 Since the mid 1960s, colleges and universities with selective admissions have used race and ethnic preferences to diversify their student bodies, specifically targeting historically underrepresented groups. On November 7, 2006, Michigan voters passed the Michigan Civil Rights Initiative, also known as Proposal 02-06.

Proposal 02-06 was an amendment to the state constitution banning the use of affirmative action programs that give consideration to groups or individuals based on race, gender, ethnicity, or national origin for public employment, education, or contracting purposes. With the passage of Proposal 02-06, Michigan public universities were no longer allowed to use race as a factor in their admissions process. The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of Proposal 02-06 on undergraduate admissions at Michigan public institutions. This study used a quantitative design.

College admissions data from 2002 to 2011 were obtained from the National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES) for each of the 15 Michigan public universities. In addition, quantitative data were obtained through the use of a researcher-developed survey sent to admissions directors or their designees at the 15 public universities. iii The findings of this study indicated that Proposal 02-06 had the greatest effect on minority enrollment at the three largest universities in Michigan, specifically for African Americans. There was a substantial decrease in the African American enrollment at the three largest universities.

The enrollment data from 2002 to 2011 for all ethnic groups combined at all 15 universities indicated that the enrollment of American Indians decreased significantly and the enrollment of the Hispanics and “Race Unknown” individuals increased significantly. Overall, the greatest impact occurred in larger universities than in smaller universities. The study also identified new policies, procedures, programs, and initiatives that universities implemented after the passage of Proposal 02-06. iv This Dissertation is dedicated to the memory of my father, Uel O.

Metcalfe and to the honor of my mother, Letha M. Metcalfe, the queen of my heart. v Acknowledgments Special thanks and gratitude to my advisor and dissertation Chair, Dr. David Meabon and committee members Dr.

Shanda Gore, Dr. Daphne Ntiri, and Dr. Ronald Opp for the continued support and guidance during this arduous process, and to all of my family and many, many, friends who continued to support me and offer words of encouragement along the way. Special thanks to my husband, Leonard Ball for your love and continued support as I pursued all of my educational endeavors during the past 19 years, and my one and only daughter, Danielle Lenise Ball for your love, support, and understanding when Mommy had homework to do.

“I have fought a good fight. I have finished my course, I have kept the faith.” (II Timothy 4:7) Peace, Love, and Blessings to all! vi Table of Contents Abstract. vi Table of Contents. vii List of Tables .x List of Figures.

Statement of the Problem. Background of Proposal 02-06. Purpose of the Study. Significance of the Study.

Definition of Terms. Review of the Literature. History of Affirmative Action. Michigan Higher Education.

Legal Issues and State Bans of Affirmative Action in vii Higher Education. Policy Issues on Admissions and Diversity in Higher Education. Studies on Affirmative Action in Higher Education. Gaps in Research.

Enrollment Management Interdependence Model. College Choice Theory. Problem and Purpose Overview. Setting for the Study.

Data Collection Procedures. Data Analysis Procedures. Description of the Sample. Discussion, Recommendations, and Conclusions.

Findings and Discussion. Recommendations for Practice. Recommendation for Further Study.144 B Public Baccalaureate Degree-Granting Universities in Michigan .145 C Freshman Applications and Admission Offers by Race/Ethnicity – UCLA, Berkeley, University of Washington, Florida System, and UT Austin and Texas A & M .147 D Changes in Enrollment – Public Universities in Michigan .169 ix List of Tables Table 1. Higher Education Affirmative Action Legal/ Policy Issues.

Tables of State with Universities that have Affirmative Action Bans Initiatives Prohibiting Race and Ethnicity in Higher Education. Possible Race-Neutral Policies in Higher Education that have been Addressed by Federal Courts in Educational Settings. Studies on Affirmative Action in Higher Education. Alternative Admissions Approaches to Affirmative Action.

Bridge-Type Support Programs Offered at Michigan Public Universities. Frequency Distributions- Position and Years at the University. Frequency Distributions- Familiarity with College Admissions Process, Policies and Regulations of Michigan’s Proposal 02-06. Frequency Distributions- Changes in Student Population of Color and Recruitment Practices Since Passage of Proposal 02-06.

Frequency Distributions- Institution’s Recruitment Strategy Pertaining to Minority Population has Changed since the Passage of Michigan’s Proposal 02-06. Frequency Distributions- Institution’s Admissions Criteria has Changed since the Passage of Michigan’s Proposal 02-06. Frequency Distributions- Institution Gave Consideration to Race in its Admissions Process Prior to Passage of Michigan’s Proposal 2. Frequency Distributions- Institution has Following Admissions x Programs.

Frequency Distributions- Racial/Ethnic Background of Institution’s Admissions. Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance- Change in Enrollment 2002-2011 African Americans. Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance- Change in Enrollment 2002- 2011 American Indian. Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance- Change in Enrollment 2002-20110 Asian Americans and Hawaiians.

Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance- Change in Enrollment 2002-2011 Caucasians. Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance- Change in Enrollment 2002-2011 Hispanic. Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance- Change in Enrollment 2002-2011 Race Unknown. Changes in Enrollment from 2006-2007 through 2010-2011.

Frequency Distributions- University Admission Policies and Procedures Implemented After Passage of Proposal 02-06. Frequency Distributions- New Initiatives in Response to or Since the Passage of Proposal 02-06. Michigan Public University Selectivity Rate. Possible Race-Neutral Policies in Higher Education that have been Addressed by Federal Courts in Educational Settings .126 xi List of Figures Figure 1.

Diversity Decision Pyramid. Seven Essential for a Successful Enrollment Management Programs. Three Channels of Entry into a University. Enrollment Change for African American Freshmen Students 2002-2011.

Enrollment Change for American Indian Freshmen Students 2002-2011. Enrollment Change for Asian American/ Hawaiian Freshmen Students 2002-2011. Enrollment Change for Caucasian Freshmen Students 2002-2011. Enrollment Change for Hispanic Freshmen Students 2002-2011.

Enrollment Change for Freshmen Students with Race Unknown 2002-2011 .111 xii Chapter One Introduction On November 7, 2006, Michigan voters passed the Civil Rights Initiative. This initiative is also known as Proposal 02-06. Proposal 02-06 was passed by a 58% to 42% margin. Proposal 02-06 amended Michigan’s Constitution by banning the use of affirmative action programs based on race, gender, ethnicity, or national origin for public employment, education, or contracting purposes (Citizens Research Council, 2006).

According to the U. Census Bureau (2010), Michigan’s total population in 2010 was 9,883,640. Of this total, 78.9% are European Americans, 14.2% are African Americans, .6% are American Indians and Alaska Native, 2.5% are some other race, and 2.3% are two or more races. Michigan’s overall population and Michigan’s 18-and-over population is presented in the appendix (see Appendix A-1 and A-2).

As indicated in the tables, Michigan’s minority population is about 20%, and Michigan’s non-minority population is about 78%. According to the United for Equality and Affirmative Action Legal Defense Fund (2012), 9 out of 10 African Americans, who represent 14% of Michigan’s population, voted against Proposal 02-06, and White voters, who represent 78% of Michigan’s population voted for Proposal 02-06 two to one. Proposal 02-06 carried by a 58% margin. This chapter presents the rationale for exploring the impact of Proposal 02-06 by presenting the statement of the problem, background information on Proposal 02-06, the purpose of this study, research questions, methodology, conceptual framework, significance of the study, limitations and delimitations of the study, assumptions, and definition of terms.

1 Statement of the Problem The problem to be addressed in this study is to ascertain whether the passage of Michigan’s Proposal 02-06 mandating that public colleges and universities eliminaterace as a factor in their admissions process had an adverse impact on the admissions and enrollment of first-time minority freshman in Michigan public universities. Jost (2001) observed that African Americans and other racial and ethnic minority groups have a history of being underrepresented on college campuses in the United States. While Jost maintained that the civil rights revolution has been effective in dismantling some legal barriers to higher education for minorities, he also cautioned that social and economic inequalities have persisted among Caucasians and racial and ethnic minority groups, making equal opportunity difficult for many African Americans and Hispanics. Affirmative action was introduced to remedy some of the inequalities among races in 1961, when it was first mentioned in Executive Order 10925 (Brunner, 2006).

It was introduced as a method of readdressing discrimination that persisted in spite of the Civil Rights Act and required active measures to be taken to ensure equal opportunities for African Americans and other minorities in employment, education, scholarships, and financial aid. Affirmative action was foreseen as a temporary remedy until a level playing field could be established for all Americans. In higher education, Affirmative Action has resulted in progress, but the needs on which it was originally based have continued to remain problematic (Brunner, 2006). Racial inequalities have continued to exist in society as well as in higher education.According to Thompson (2007), an unequal and unlevel academic playing field exists, and race-conscious affirmative action legal debates 2 in higher education likely will continue until all affirmative action policies and programs are eliminated.

In addition, Thompson found that the development of legal cases and anti- affirmative action policies support the existence of White privilege in society. Background of Proposal 02-06 Proposal 02-06 originated as part of a national strategy endorsed by Ward Connerly. Connerly has been political activist and businessman, and he also is a former University of California Regent (Michigan Civil Rights Commission, 2007, p. He founded and president of the American Civil Rights Institute, a national non-profit organization designed to educate the public about the need to move beyond raceand, specifically, racial and gender preferences (Michigan Civil Rights Commission, 2007, p.

According to the Michigan Civil Rights Commission (2007), during Connerly’s 12-year appointment with the University of California Regents, he focusedmainly on the race-based system of preferences reflected in admissions policies of the University of California. The Michigan Civil Rights Commission noted that in July of 1995, Connerly voted, along with the Regents, to end the use of race in the university’s admissions policies. The Michigan Civil Rights Commission further explained that Connerly accepted the chair’s position with the California Civil Rights Initiative (Proposition 209), and under his leadership, workers for the California Civil Rights Initiative obtained more thanone million qualified signatures to be placed on the 1996 November ballot. In addition, the Michigan Civil Rights Commission noted that California voters passed Proposition 209 by a 55% to 45% margin.

Proposition 209 amended the California Constitution and prohibited public institutions from discriminating on the basis of race, 3 sex, or ethnicity. Proposition 209 was supported by the California Civil Rights Initiative Campaign, led by the University of California Regent Ward Connerly (Michigan Civil Rights Commission (2007). After voters passed Proposition 209, it was challenged in court.