Mohammad taleghani courtyard dwellings

18 2014 Dwelling on Courtyards Exploring the energy efficiency and comfort potential of courtyards for dwellings in the Netherlands Mohammad Taleghani Dwelling on Courtyards Exploring the energy efficiency and comfort potential of courtyards for dwellings in the Netherlands Mohammad Taleghani Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment, Department of Architectural Engineering + Technology i i Dwelling on Courtyards Exploring the energy efficiency and comfort potential of courtyards for dwellings in the Netherlands Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Technische Universiteit Delft, op gezag van de Rector Magnificus prof. Luyben, voorzitter van het College voor Promoties, in het openbaar te verdedigen op 3 december 2014 om 12.30 uur door Mohammad TALEGHANI Master of Science in Architecture Engineering University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran geboren te Shahrood, Iran i Dit proefschrift is goedgekeurd door de promotor: Prof. van den Dobbelsteen Copromotor Dr. Tenpierik Samenstelling promotiecommissie: Rector Magnificus, voorzitter Prof.

van den Dobbelsteen, Technische Universiteit Delft, promotor Dr. Tenpierik, Technische Universiteit Delft, copromotor Prof. Sailor, Portland State University, USA Prof. Steemers, MPhil PhD RIBA University of Cambridge, UK Prof.

Schrijver, University of Antwerp, Belgium Prof. Blocken, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven Prof. Bluyssen, Technische Universiteit Delft Prof. Luscuere, Technische Universiteit Delft, reservelid abe.nl Design: Sirene Ontwerpers, Rotterdam Cover image: Marrakesh (Bruno Barbey / Magnum Photos) ISBN 978-94-6186-395-9 ISSN 2212-3202 © 2014 Mohammad Taleghani i i Painting by Farzaneh Fakhredin i ‫سوگند به روز‬ ‫و به شب چون در آن می آرامد‬ ‫که پروردگارت هرگز با تو وداع نکرده و تو را تنها نگذاشته‬ ‫بزودى پروردگارت نعمتی به تو خواهد بخشید که خشنود شوى‬ ‫مگرنه تو را سرگشته دید و هدایت کرد‬ ‫و تو را تنگدست دید و بی نیاز گردانید‬ ‫پس یتیم را هرگز میازار و فقیر را مران و نعمت پروردگار را بر خویش بشمار‬ ‫سوره ضحی‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪i‬‬ i ‫تقدیم به فاطمه و رضا‬ ‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪i‬‬ i Contents List of tables   19 List of figures   21 Summary   29 Samenvatting   31 1 Introduction   37 1.1 Research steps and approach   43 1.8 Dissertation outline   47 11 Contents i PART 1 Literature review 2 Introduction into courtyard buildings in different climates   53 2.3 Methodology of the literature review   57 2.1 Climate change and buildings   57 2.2 The effect of residential buildings and courtyards    58 2.1 Definition of courtyard buildings   62 2.2 Historical evolution of courtyards   63 2.3 The middle ages and renaissance civilisation   66 2.4 Courtyards in modern era   66 2.5 Impacts of courtyards   67 2.1 Social- cultural impacts   67 2.6 Comparative characteristics of courtyard buildings in four climates   69 2.1 The courtyard in a hot arid climate   70 2.2 The courtyard in a snow climate   73 2.3 The courtyard in a temperate climate   75 2.4 The courtyard in a tropical climate   78 2.7 Conclusions and discussion   80 2.2 Discussion for further studies   81 12 Dwelling on Courtyards i 3 Introduction into thermal comfort in buildings   87 3.2 Development of the concept of human thermal comfort   90 3.1 Steady-state studies   92 3.3 Adaptive thermal comfort standards    101 3.4 Comparison and discussion   110 3.5 Conclusions   113 PART 2 Indoor study 4 Indoor thermal comfort in different building blocks   123 4.2 Method and models   127 4.3 Thermal comfort in summer    132 4.4 Results and discussion   134 4.1 One storey models   135 4.2 Multi-storey models   137 4.2 Summer thermal comfort   141 4.1 One-storey models    141 4.2 Multi-storey models    141 4.3 Energy versus comfort   142 4.5 Conclusion   144 13 Contents i 5 Indoor thermal comfort in courtyard buildings   149 5.1 Thermal behaviour of courtyard buildings    152 5.2 Highly reflective materials and cool roofs   153 5.2 Thermal comfort model    159 5.3 Climate of the Netherlands   159 5.1 Phase 1: Parametric simulations   160 5.1 Courtyards with different orientations   160 5.2 Future climate scenario and heat mitigation strategies    162 5.3 The position effect   166 5.4 Detailed analysis of a single family house with different roofs   168 5.2 Phase 2: Scale model experiment   170 5.3 Phase 3: An actual courtyard house experiment   172 5.4 Conclusions   174 6 Indoor thermal comfort in a courtyard/atrium dwelling   179 6.2 Climate change in the Netherlands   183 6.1 Modelling and simulations   186 6.2 Summer thermal comfort calculation   190 6.3 Results and discussion   194 6.1 Phase zero: The reference model- Building I   194 6.2 Phase one: The effect(s) of a courtyard- Buildings IIc and IIIc   197 6.3 Phase two: The effect(s) of an atrium- Buildings IIa and IIIa   199 6.4 Phase three: Optimisation   202 6.4 Conclusions    205 14 Dwelling on Courtyards i PART 3 Outdoor study 7 Outdoor thermal comfort within different building blocks   211 7.1 Outdoor thermal comfort indices   214 7.2 Urban typology study   216 7.4 Validation of ENVI-met    225 7.1 Measurement versus simulation   225 7.2 Computational domain size sensitivity check   227 7.3 Discussion on reliability of ENVI-met   230 7.3 Results and discussion   230 7.4 Conclusions   238 8 Outdoor thermal comfort within different courtyard buildings   245 8.3 Validation of ENVI-met    257 8.1 Measurement versus simulation   257 8.2 Calibration of the ENVI-met simulations   259 15 Contents i 8.1 Phase 1: Reference study   261 8.2 Mean radiant temperature (Tmrt)   265 8.2 Phase 2: the climate of 2050   266 8.3 Phase 3: The albedo effect   268 8.4 Phase 4: The effect of water   270 8.5 Phase 5: The effect of vegetation   270 8.6 Conclusions   273 9 Heat mitigation strategies on courtyard buildings in summer   281 9.

Literature review on heat mitigation strategies   284 9.3 Climate of Portland   289 9.4 Results and discussion   290 9.1 Scale 1: the campus microclimate   290 9.2 Scale 2: the three courtyards   295 9.3 Scale 3: Shattuck Hall    299 9.5 Conclusion   304 10 Heat mitigation strategies on courtyard buildings in winter   311 10.2 Methodology   315 16 Dwelling on Courtyards i 10.3 Results and discussion   319 10.1 Summer study, the case of Portland (OR), USA   319 10.1 The three different courtyards   319 10.2 Park cool effect in Portland   321 10.2 Winter study, the case of Delft, the Netherlands   322 10.1 The three different courtyards   322 10.2 Park cool effect in Delft   324 10.3 Three different roofs   325 10.3 Scale model experiment   328 10.2 Answers to the research questions   335 11.1 Answers to the sub-research questions   336 11.2 Answers to the main research questions   340 11.3 Limitations of this research   342 11.4 Conclusions of findings   343 11.1 Indoor thermal comfort and energy use   343 11.2 Outdoor thermal comfort   344 11.3 Design recommendations based on the results   345 11.1 Recommendations for future research   346 11.2 Recommendations for the market   346 11.6 Value of this dissertation   347 Acknowledgements   349 Curriculum vitae   351 List of publications   353 17 Contents i 18 Dwelling on Courtyards i List of tables Chapter 1 no i t cudo r t n I Table 7 Suggested applicability for the categories and Table 1 their associated acceptable temperature ranges The measurement tools of the dissertation   47 (table after [100]).   107 Table 8 Chapter 2 s e t ami l c t ne r e f f i d n i s gn i d l i ub d r a y t r uoc o t n i no i t cudo r t n I ATG Comfort bandwidths for the alpha type (table after [104]).   108 Table 1 Table 9 Classification of studies done in case of specified comfort temperature bandwidths for transitional spaces and courtyard buildings.   60 dwellings based on [105].   110 Table 2 Table 10 Comparative thermal data for the old and new Representative weather data of De Bilt as used in houses at Ghadames (Ahmed et al.   110 Table 3 Table 11 Daylight factor % on interior facades and in Comparison of the comfort standards for summer courtyard (Ntefeh et al, 2003).   113 Table 4 Comparison of courtyard building characteristics Chapter 4 in four climates   81 s k co l b gn i d l i ub t ne r e f f i d n i t r o fmoc l amr eh t r oodn I Table 1 Chapter 3 s gn i d l i ub n i t r o fmoc l amr eh t o t n i no i t cudo r t n I The wall, roof and glazing properties used in the simulations and calculations.   128 Table 1 Table 2 Chronological development of indices related to The surface to volume ratio of the different thermal comfort (table after [53])   92 models (average values over all storeys).   131 Table 2 Table 3 The description of comfort vote units based on Adaptive comfort algorithms for individual ASHRAE, Bedford, HSI (Heat Stress Index= the countries [29].   132 ratio of demand for sweat evaporation to capacity Table 4 of evaporation (Ereq/Emax), and zone of thermal Suggested applicability for the categories and comfort classification (Table after [53, 54])   93 their associated acceptable temperature ranges Table 3 (table after [28]).   133 Recommended operative temperatures for occupants for sedentary activity based on ISO Chapter 5 7730-1984   94 s gn i d l i ub d r a y t r uoc n i t r o fmoc l amr eh t r oodn I Table 4 Table 1 Recommended operative temperatures for The properties used in the simulations.   154 occupants with sedentary activity, 50% relative Table 2 humidity and mean air speed less than 0.15 m/s The data used for the simulation of the green roof based on ASHRAE 55-1992   95 in this research.   159 Table 5 Table 3 Overview of studies showing differences Operative temperatures and percentage of of comfort temperature between naturally discomfort hours in the N-S model.   164 ventilated and conditioned buildings [92]   99 Table 4 Table 6 Operative temperatures and percentage of Adaptive Comfort Algorithms for individual discomfort hours in the E-W model.   106 Table 5 The average reductions of discomfort hours in the two models.   164 19 List of tables i Table 6 Table 6 The operative temperatures of the model with Averages of the microclimates properties. *= The different roofs.   169 sum of slightly cool, comfortable and slightly warm hours.    236 Chapter 6 gn i l l ewd mu i r t a/d r a y t r uoc a n i t r o fmoc l amr eh t r oodn I Chapter 8 s gn i d l i ub d r a y t r uoc t ne r e f f i d n i h t iw t r o fmoc l amr eh t r ood t uO Table 1 Climate change scenarios for 2050 in the Table 1 Netherlands [30].   185 The conditions used in the basic simulations Table 2 (phase one of the parametric study).   255 (Envelope) surface to (interior) volume ratio of the Table 2 models.   186 Climate change scenarios for 2050 in the Table 3 Netherlands [80].   256 The wall and roof properties used in the Table 3 simulations and calculations.   189 The conditions used in the validation Table 4 simulations.   258 Heating schedules, set points and set backs of the Table 4 thermal zones.   189 The calibration data of models with two Table 5 different grid sizes. *RMSD= root mean square Representative weather data of De Bilt as used in deviation.   191 Table 5 Table 6 The average mean radiant temperature (Tmrt), air Monthly heating energy demand and discomfort temperature (Ta) and relative humidity (RH) of the hours (based on the current climate scenario).   272 At*=atrium; Cy**= courtyard.   201 Table 6 Table 7 The duration of direct sun at the centre of the Monthly heating energy demand and discomfort models in the reference study (Phase 1).

   274 Table 8 Monthly heating energy demand and discomfort Chapter 9 r em mus n i s gn i d l i ub d r a y t r uoc no s e i ge t a r t s no i t ag i t im t aeH hours (based on the W+ climate scenario).   204 Table 9 Table 1 Monthly heating energy demand and discomfort The average mean radiant temperature (Tmrt), air hours (based on the W+ climate scenario).    204 temperature (Ta) and relative humidity (RH) of the 10*50 m2 EW model.   291 Chapter 7 s k co l b gn i d l i ub t ne r e f f i d n i h t iw t r o fmoc l amr eh t r ood t uO Table 2 Timing and magnitude of largest UHI (relative to Table 1 the airport station) as measured at the park and Ranges of the thermal indexes predicted fire station parking lot both at night and during mean vote (PMV) and physiological equivalent the day.