University of bradford phd thesis 4

A Critical Evaluation of the 2009 Niger Delta Amnesty Disarmament Demobilisation and Reintegration Programme Item Type Thesis Authors Inuwa, Solomon Rights <a rel="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by-nc-nd/3.0/"><img alt="Creative Commons License" style="border-width:0" src="http://i.org/l/by- nc-nd/3.png" /></a><br />The University of Bradford theses are licenced under a <a rel="license" href="http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/">Creative Commons Licence</a>. Download date 21/02/2022 20:12:27 Link to Item http://hdl.net/10454/14640 University of Bradford eThesis This thesis is hosted in Bradford Scholars – The University of Bradford Open Access repository. Visit the repository for full metadata or to contact the repository team © University of Bradford. This work is licenced for reuse under a Creative Commons Licence.

A Critical Evaluation of the 2009 Niger Delta Amnesty Disarmament Demobilisation and Reintegration Programme Solomon Inuwa Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Division of Peace Studies and International Development Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities University of Bradford 2017 Abstract Solomon Inuwa A Critical Evaluation of the 2009 Niger Delta Amnesty Disarmament Demobilisation and Reintegration Programme Keywords: Nigeria, Niger-Delta, Amnesty, Disarmament, Demobilisation, Reinsertion, Reintegration, Neopatrimonialism, State, Patronage. Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration (DDR) have become a key component of the postconflict peacebuilding orthodoxy. Therefore, this study evaluates the efficacy of Amnesty, Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration (ADDR) in conflict prevention and resolution using the 2009 Niger Delta ADDR programme as a case study. The study evaluated the effectiveness of the programme using the minimalist and maximalist framework advanced in the DDR literature.

The key findings and conclusions of the Study were that a minimalist DDR would only achieve security stabilisation and return ex- combatants to the status quo- ante society with all the pre-conflict grievances unaddressed thereby bequeathing a high potential of relapse to violence. Furthermore, for DDR to be an effective conflict prevention and resolution mechanism and postconflict peacebuilding force, its conceptualisation, design and implementation must be maximalist in nature with a transformative agenda that aims to address the roots causes of violence. i Acknowledgement Foremost, I give all honour and glory to God Almighty for giving me the grace that enabled me to complete the programme in good health and with a high spirit of motivation. Accordingly, I want to thank Pastor Akpo Onduku and his dear wife Pastor Andrea of Chapel of Grace Bradford and the entire congregation for their consistent support; spiritual and otherwise.

I would also like to express my profound appreciation to my lead supervisor Professor Neil Cooper for the useful comments, remarks and robust engagement I received from him which kept inspiring me throughout the programme. I also want to acknowledge the support I received from my second supervisor Professor Donna Pankhurst. This thesis is an evidence of my supervisors’ sincere mentoring. I also want to acknowledge Professor David Francis who was my first supervisor when I registered in the PhD programme, for laying the solid foundation that my subsequent supervisors built on.

I want to sincerely thank the Nigerian Army for granting me the permission to undertake this study and the Petroleum Technology Development Fund (PTDF) for providing the funding that enabled me to undertake this PhD programme. I also want to acknowledge Professor Kenneth Omeje for being supportive both spiritually and academically. I also wish to acknowledge the support of my brothers and sisters particularly Professor Samuel Inuwa Zalanga of Bethel University Minnesota, who has been a consistent source of support and a role model to me. I also acknowledge the support of my dear wife Peace and son Joseph for bearing with me throughout the period of my research.

I also wish to acknowledge the support of senior military officers and colleagues both serving and retired, particularly Brigadier Generals LF Abdullahi and BH Muhammed, Colonels S Ibrahim, UM Mammadi and Captain ST Uba as well as retired Major Generals AT Umaru, AK Kwaskebe and PG Ogah and Brigadier General Dr MIU Adeka I do also appreciate the support and encouragement I received from elders like Dr Muhammed Ngala and Dr Inwang both based in Bradford. I also appreciate the support of all my friends for being a source of psychological encouragement to me. I must also acknowledge all my PhD cohort in Bradford too numerous to mention their names. Finally, I appreciate family friends in Bradford such as Brother Aike Aimufua, Madam Safiya Zakama, Haruna Isah, Barrister Mustapha, Brother Peter Ishola and Mr Barry Katu.

ii Dedication This thesis is dedicated to my late mother and the oppressed and marginalised people of Niger Delta. iii Table of Contents Abstract. iii Table of Contents. iv List of Figures.

x List of Tables. xii Chapter One. Genesis of the Research. Introduction and Background to the Research Questions.

Primary Research Questions. Secondary Research Questions. Significance of the Case Study. Overview of Research Methodology and Methods.

Researcher’s Broader Theoretical Framework: Liberalism. Overall Research Strategy- the Case Study Approach. Justifications for Adopting the Case Study Method. Research Methods and Procedures.

Sample Size, Method and Access to Research Participants. Methods of Data Collection. Semi-Structured In-Depth Interviews. Focus Group Discussions.

Research Delimitations and Limitations. Method of Data Analysis. Challenges in the Field. Problematising the Niger Delta and Niger Delta Conflict.

Problematising the Niger Delta. Problematising the Niger Delta Conflict. The Structure of the Thesis and Synopsis of Chapters. 35 Review of Relevant Literature: Amnesty, Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration.

Conceptualising Amnesty, Review of Empirical Application and Nexus with DDR. Amnesty: Review of Empirical Application and Relationship to Disarmament Demobilisation and Reintegration. Conceptualising Disarmament, Demobilisation, Reintegration and Review of Relevant Literature. Conceptualising Disarmament, Demobilisation and reintegration.

Review of Relevant Disarmament Literature. Disarmament: Planning Considerations and Implementation Challenges. Incentives and Motivations in Disarmament. Management and Handling of Weapons Collected During Disarmament.

Review of Relevant Literature Demobilisation. Conventional Versus Nonconventional Perspectives on Demobilisation. Demobilisation with or Without Cantonment. Payment of Reinsertion Assistance During Demobilisation.

Review of Relevant Literature: Reintegration. Minimalist and Maximalist Perspectives on Reintegration. Minimalist Perspective and Assumptions on Reintegration and Counter Views. The Funding and Ownership of DDR.

Measuring Success in DDR. 104 The Origin, Dynamics and Nigerian State Management of the Niger Delta Conflict. Theoretical Framework of Analysis: Explaining the Origin and Dynamics of the Niger Delta Conflict. The Precolonial and Colonial Foundation of the Contemporary Niger Delta Oil Conflict.

Pre-colonial Foundations of Violent Conflict in the Niger Delta. Colonial Foundations of the Niger Delta Conflict. The Contemporary Nigerian State and the Roots of the Niger Delta Conflict 114 3. Theorising the Changing Dynamics, Post-Kaiama Declaration and MEND’s Era of the Niger Delta Conflict.

Changing Dynamics of the Niger Delta Conflict. Theorising the Post-Kaiama Declaration and the Sustained Armed Rebellion by MEND against the Nigerian State. Summary of Theoretical Arguments. Genesis and Periodisation in the Niger Delta Conflict.

The Pre-independence Agitation of Minorities of the Niger Delta 141 3. The Era of Community Based Agitations 1970s- 1980s. The 1990s Movement for the Survival of Ogoni People (MOSOP) 145 3. The Kaiama Declaration and Ijaw Youth Council (IYC).

The Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) 155 3. Comparing the Impact of the MOSOP and MEND Eras of the Niger Delta Conflict. The Management of the Niger Delta Conflict by the Nigerian State. 168 The Niger Delta Amnesty Disarmament Demobilisation and Reintegration Programme: Conceptualisation, Negotiation, Planning and Implementation.

The Niger Delta amnesty, Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration Programme and the Politics of Conceptualisation. The Niger Delta ADDR Negotiation. The Planning and Implementation of the Niger Delta ADDR Programme 184 4. The Planning Process of the Niger Delta ADDR Programme.

The PAPC Terms of Reference and the Planning Process. The Implementation of the Niger Delta Amnesty Disarmament Demobilisation and Reintegration Programme. 193 Knowledge and Skills Acquisition. The Implementation of the Disarmament Phase.

The Implementation of the Demobilisation Phase. The Implementation of the Reintegration Phase. Summary of Key Arguments: Conceptualisation, Negotiation, Planning and Implementation. Challenges, Problems and Lessons to be Learned from the Niger Delta ADDR Programme.

Challenges and Problems due to the Nature and Character of the Nigerian State (Rentier Neopatrimonialism and Law and Order Nature of the Nigerian State). Challenges and Problems Due to the Dysfunctionality of the Nigerian State (Incompetent/Ineffective Nature of the Nigerian State). Challenges and Problems due to Competition Between Leading Security Agencies of the Nigerian State. Challenges and Problems due to Geographical Impediment.

232 The Niger Delta Amnesty Disarmament Demobilisation and Reintegration Programme and Goal Accomplishment. The Niger Delta ADDR Programme and Security Stabilisation. Amnesty and Security Stabilisation in the Niger Delta. Disarmament and Security Stabilisation in the Niger Delta.

Demobilisation and Security Stabilisation in the Niger Delta. Reintegration and Security Stabilisation in the Niger Delta. The Niger Delta Amnesty Disarmament Demobilisation and Reintegration Programme from the Perspective of the Technical Committee on the Niger Delta. Overview of the Niger Delta Amnesty Disarmament Demobilisation and Reintegration Programme as Recommended by the Technical Committee on the Niger Delta.

Evaluating the Niger Delta Amnesty Disarmament Demobilisation and Reintegration Programme as Conceptualised by the Technical Committee on the Niger Delta. The Implementation of the TCND’s Recommendations, Liberalism and the Maximalist Perspective to DDR. 287 viii General Conclusion. Main Research Question and Empirical Findings.

Theoretical and Empirical Contributions. Potential Concerns for Future Research. 348 ix List of Figures Figure 1.1: Map of Nigeria Showing the 9 oil Producing States .1: Phases/Periodisation in the Niger Delta Conflict and the Corresponding Drivers of the Conflict .1: Key areas of Meeting Career Aspirations of the Demobilised Militants .1: Cassava Farm in Bayelsa state Flooded with oil as at 12/11/2011. 275 x List of Tables Table 1.1: Categories and Number of Respondents Interviewed and held Focus Group Discussion (FGD) with .1: Phases of the DDR Programme and Key Activities to be Carried out .2: Number of militants Disarmed and Quantity of Weapons, Ammunitions, Unexploded Ordinance (UXO), D-caps, Dynamites and Magazines Recovered 6 August-4 October 2009 .3: Names and Locations of high-profile Militants’ Groups Disarmed 6 August-4 October 2009 .4: The demobilisation of 20, 192 militants that disarmed during the first phase of disarmament held from 6 August – 4 October 2009 .5: Foreign Countries where Demobilised Ex-militants were Deployed or about to be Deployed for Reintegration Training as of December 2011 .6: Quick Facts on Reintegration as at June 2013.

208 xi Glossary ADDR Amnesty, Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration AIGP Assistant Inspector- General of Police AOR Area of Operational Responsibility BIO Brigade Intelligence Officer C&C Command and Control CAFFs Children Associated with Fighting Forces CBA Community-Based Approaches CBOs Community Based Organisations CDS Chief of Defense Staff CSOs Civil Society Organisations DDR Disarmament Demobilisation and Reintegration DPKOs Department of Peacekeeping Operations DSS Department of State Service ECOMOG Economic Community of West African States Monitoring Group. EFCC Economic and Financial Crimes Commission EITI Extractive Industry Transparency International EMIROAF Ethnic Minority Rights Organisation of Africa FGD Focus Group Discussion FMLN Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front GAFFs Girls Associated with Fighting Forces GMoU General Memorandum of Understanding HR Human Resource ICPC Independent Corrupt Practices and Other Related Offences Commission IDDRS Integrated Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration Standards IFIs International Financial Institutions (IFIs) IMF International Monetary Fund INGOs International Nongovernmental Organisations IT Information Technology IYC Ijaw Youth Council JTF Joint Task Force LIMUP Liberation Movement for the Urhobo People xii M&E Monitoring and Evaluation MA Master of Art MEND Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta MNOCs Multinational Oil Companies.