Inspiring change exercise self efficacy dispositional optimism

Walden University ScholarWorks Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies Collection 2014 Inspiring Change: Exercise Self-Efficacy, Dispositional Optimism, and Perceived Stress in College Seniors Joshua M. Garrin Walden University Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.edu/dissertations Part of the Clinical Psychology Commons, and the Public Health Education and Promotion Commons This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies Collection at ScholarWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks. For more information, please contact ScholarWorks@waldenu.

Walden University College of Social and Behavioral Sciences This is to certify that the doctoral dissertation by Joshua Garrin has been found to be complete and satisfactory in all respects, and that any and all revisions required by the review committee have been made. Review Committee Dr. Kimberley Cox, Committee Chairperson, Psychology Faculty Dr. William Disch, Committee Member, Psychology Faculty Dr.

Tom Diebold, University Reviewer, Psychology Faculty Chief Academic Officer Eric Riedel, Ph. Walden University 2014 Abstract Inspiring Change: Exercise Self-Efficacy, Dispositional Optimism, and Perceived Stress in College Seniors by Joshua M. Garrin MS, Pace University, 1998 BS, State University of New York at New Paltz, 1993 Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Psychology Walden University May 2014 Abstract Prohealth competencies, positive outcome expectancies, and adaptive stress appraisals have profound implications for the real-world transition of college seniors—a population for which engagement in physical activity reflects a preeminent concern. Prior studies on exercise self-efficacy (ESE), dispositional optimism (DO), perceived stress (PS), and physical activity have yielded inconclusive evidence of the emergent psychosocial challenges encountered during the final year of the college experience.

Using a triadic framework of self-efficacy, attribution, and cognitive appraisal theories, this cross- sectional, quantitative study was conducted using a web survey to examine (a) the impact of physical activity level on ESE, DO, and PS; (b) the relationships that exist between ESE, DO, and PS; and (c) whether DO, PS, and sex predict ESE in a sample of 138 college seniors. The Barriers Self-Efficacy Scale, Revised Life Orientation Test, Perceived Stress Scale, and Stages of Exercise Change Questionnaire were used to assess the respective lines of inquiry. Between-groups analysis of variance, correlation, and standard multiple regression analyses were conducted to test each respective hypothesis. Results indicated (a) significant mean differences in ESE, DO, and PS for exercise maintainers; (b) large intercorrelations among ESE, DO, and PS; and (c) PS as the most significant correlate and the strongest predictor of ESE.

Findings can be used to frame the college years as a transformative experience for indoctrinating the competency beliefs that underpin leadership potentials, internalizing perceived controllability over objectives, and engendering challenge-approach orientations—prerequisites for real-world adaptation and potential building blocks for positive social change. Inspiring Change: Exercise Self-Efficacy, Dispositional Optimism, and Perceived Stress in College Seniors by Joshua M. Garrin MS, Pace University, 1998 BS, State University of New York at New Paltz, 1993 Dissertation Proposal Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Psychology Walden University May 2014 Acknowledgments The following body of work would not have been possible without the unending support of several key people who have touched both my personal and academic worlds. I thank my mother, father, and brother who believed in my motivation to undertake the many challenges encountered within the past four years.

Thank you for your capacity to embrace the seemingly endless process with me—albeit from a distance—and to endure hearing the words “I’m almost done”, ad nauseum. In addition, a heartfelt thanks to Dr. Kimberley Cox and Dr. William Disch for their collective patience, guidance, and support throughout the complex twists and turns of the dissertation journey, and a special thanks to Dr.

Tom Diebold for his rigorous review of my manuscript. Your respective critical feedback was essential to achieving a significant end result. It is my hope that this research not only extends the current body of evidence, but that it makes each of you proud to have played such an integral part in the process of bringing these findings to light. Perhaps no one has been more pivotal in the success of this endeavor than Renée, whose unconditional love and support have persisted—without hesitation or interruption—despite the mental and emotional rigors of the journey.

Your belief in me— past, present, and future—will never be taken for granted. The words “thank you” could never convey the degree of gratitude that I have for your enduring belief in me. Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study.6 Purpose of the Study .10 Research Questions and Hypotheses .10 Nature of the Study .15 Scope and Delimitations .19 Significance of the Study .23 Chapter 2: Literature Review .27 Literature Search Strategy .29 Self-Efficacy Theory (SET) .30 Cognitive Appraisal Theory (CAT) .33 i Self-determination theory .33 Theory of planned behavior .34 Social psychological theories .37 Literature Review Related to Key Variables .39 The Multidimensional Impact of Physical Exercise .39 Exercise Self-Efficacy .48 Physical Activity Level/Stage of Change .51 Summary and Conclusions .54 Chapter 3: Research Method .57 Research Design and Rationale .60 Sampling and Sampling Procedures .62 Sample size and power analysis .63 Prior Research Involving the Selected Statistical Analyses .65 Analysis of variance .65 ii Correlational analyses .66 Procedures for Recruitment, Participation and Data Collection .68 Provision of informed consent .68 Mode of data collection .69 Practical and technical considerations regarding the use of web survey .70 Considerations specific to participant-to-researcher communication .71 Barriers Self-Efficacy Scale (BARSE) .72 Life Orientation Test-Revised (LOT-R) .73 Perceived Stress Scale, 10-Item (PSS-10) .74 Stage of Exercise Change Questionnaire (SECQ) .76 Operationalization of Constructs .77 Exercise Self-Efficacy .81 Analysis of variance.81 iii Standard multiple regression.81 Threats to Validity .91 Time Frame, Actual Recruitment, and Response Rates .91 Emergence of Adverse Events .92 Data Cleaning and Screening Procedures .92 Detection of Multivariate Outliers .92 Descriptive Statistics for Sociodemographic Characteristics .111 Chapter 5: Conclusion and Future Directions .114 Interpretation of the Findings .114 iv Exercise Self-Efficacy .116 Current Level of Physical Activity .117 Limitations of the Study .120 Capitalize on the Early Stages of the College Experience .120 Reinforce Perceptions of Controllability .121 Enrich the Skills that Reinforce Barrier Efficacy During the Preparation Stage .122 Investigate the Addictive Potential of the Exercise Stimulus .122 Adopt a Biopsychosocial Approach to Addressing Obesity .123 Bridge the Gap Between Intentionality and Behavior .124 Create Mentorship Opportunities During the Early College Transition .125 Embrace Collaboration as a Dynamic Opportunity for Reciprocal Learning.126 Implications for Positive Social Change .133 Appendix A: Sociodemographic Questionnaire .200 v List of Tables Table 1. Instruments, Psychometrics, Theories, and Variables of Interest.

Demographics for Overall Sample. Descriptive Statistics for ESE, DO, and PS by Physical Activity Level. Test of Normality for ESE, DO, and PS by Physical Activity Level. Central Tendency, Standard Deviation, Skewness, and Kurtosis for ESE, DO, and PS.

Levene’s Test of Homogeneity of Variances for ESE, DO, and PS. ANOVA for ESE, DO, and PS. Tukey’s Test for Multiple Comparisons: ESE. Tukey’s Test for Multiple Comparisons: DO.

Tukey’s Test for Multiple Comparisons: PS. Pearson Correlations between ESE, DO, and PS. Pearson Correlations between ESE, DO, PS, and Sex. Regression Summary Table: DO, PS, and Sex for ESE.

111 vi 1 Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study The senior year of college represents a critical biopsychosocial juncture in human growth and development. At the latter end of young adulthood, biological changes often stabilize while psychosocial exploration is driven by continuous exposure to the external world (Erikson, 1963, 1968). Despite Cohen’s (2009) account of the college years as a period of enlightenment, the range of vocational (Wood, 2004), economic (Norvilitiset al., 2006), and contextual challenges associated with the transition to postgraduate life has implications for acute psychological stress-related impacts. While the college experience serves to establish a foundation for vocational purpose (Flowers, 2002), flawed health beliefs (Bylund, Imes, & Baxter, 2005), career indecision (Tien, Lin, & Chen, 2005), and role identity confusion (Barnett, Gareis, James, & Steele, 2001) reflect but just a few of the emergent concerns experienced by college seniors.

Beyond these challenges, researchers have revealed a growing problem in the college health domain: In general, college students in the United States fail to engage in the level of physical activity prescribed by governing health authorities (American College Health Association [ACHA], 2008; United States Department of Health and Human Services [USDHHS], 2008). When compounded by increased exposure to the myriad psychosocial stressors commonly associated with young adulthood, inattention to physical health could have deleterious impacts on global well-being. Given the far- reaching psychophysiological impact of physical activity reported in the literature (see Downs & Ashton, 2011; Tetlie, Eik-Nes, Palmstierna, Callaghan, & Nøttestad, 2008), perceived self-efficacy for exercise ability could have a significant positive influence on 2 perceived controllability over outcomes and stress perception—thus, optimizing the capacity of college seniors to approach postgraduation challenges. It remains open to debate whether enhanced senior-year stress levels could negatively affect stable characterological traits such as optimism—a personality attribute that has been directly linked to academic performance (Bressler, Bressler, & Bressler, 2010) and one that presumably underpins postgraduation goal attainment.

Such perspectives have implications for whether the adoption of prohealth values play an integral role in the ability of students to (a) adhere to prohealth practices, (b) remain optimistic in the face of overwhelmingly high levels of psychosocial challenge, and (c) and can potentiate stress resilience. In the current study, these perspectives compelled me to examine exercise self-efficacy (ESE), dispositional optimism (DO), and perceived stress (PS) when experienced through the lens of college seniors. The well-documented positive impact of physical activity on stress level (Collins et al., 2009), executive functioning abilities (Davis et al., 2011), and self-concept (Lamb & Gulliford, 2011; Stoll & Alfermann, 2002) has potential implications for how individuals attribute outcomes and regulate stress perception. For college students, researchers have shown that a range of physical, cognitive, and social expectancies could significantly impact behavioral outcomes (see Taber, Meischke, & Maciejewski, 2010).

When extending this research to the college senior cohort, the psychosocial rigors of the pregraduation period have implications for stressors that negatively impact perceived controllability over specific aspects of health—potentially impacting the level of self- determination (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000) necessary to adopt prohealth behavior. 3 Finally, the extent to which college seniors exhibit perceived competency for health behaviors, internalize controllability over outcomes, and formulate adaptive appraisals of the stress stimulus have profound implications for future social change agency. As students demonstrate an enhanced capacity for self-regulated health behavior (i., ESE), those competency and mastery skills may be generalized to self-determined leadership potentials. In addition, as students enhance their perceived controllability over future outcomes (i., DO), bias may be reduced and a universal respect for individual differences may be embraced.

Further, as students engender approach versus avoidance- oriented coping styles (i., PS), they are presumably more willing to undertake the challenges associated with specific objectives and optimize their social change efficacy. The following sections of this chapter include summaries of the extant literature that provide an overview of ESE, DO, PS, and physical activity level as they relate to college seniors. In the problem statement, I highlight the relevant gaps in the literature regarding the respective health competencies, outcome expectancies, and stress appraisals of college seniors: (a) whether differences in ESE, DO, and PS exist in relation to current physical activity level; (b) whether relationships exist between ESE, DO, and PS; and (c) whether DO, PS, and sex predict ESE. Overall, I examined factors related to the salient attitudes, beliefs, and perceptions that emerged during what Henscheid (2008) described as a “critical transition point” (p.

1) in the path of human development, and that ultimately serve to sustain health and subjective well-being in postgraduation life.