Luận án: Công giáo Da đen – Sự hình thành tôn giáo địa phương ở Mexico thuộc địa bởi Krystle F. Sweda

City University of New York (CUNY) CUNY Academic Works Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects CUNY Graduate Center 2-2020 Black Catholicism: The Formation of Local Religion in Colonial Mexico Krystle F. Sweda The Graduate Center, City University of New York How does access to this work benefit you? Let us know! More information about this work at: https://academicworks.edu/gc_etds/3523 Discover additional works at: https://academicworks.edu This work is made publicly available by the City University of New York (CUNY). Contact: AcademicWorks@cuny.edu BLACK CATHOLICISM: THE FORMATION OF LOCAL RELIGION IN COLONIAL MEXICO By KRYSTLE FARMAN SWEDA A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty in History in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, The City University of New York 2020 © 2020 KRYSTLE FARMAN SWEDA All Rights Reserved ii Black Catholicism: The Formation of Local Religion in Colonial Mexico by Krystle Farman Sweda This manuscript has been read and accepted for the Graduate Faculty in History in satisfaction of the dissertation requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. _______________________ ____________________________________ Date Herman Bennett Chair of Examining Committee _______________________ ____________________________________ Date Joel Allen Executive Officer Supervisory Committee: Sarah Covington Amanda Wunder Amy Chazkel THE CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK iii ABSTRACT Black Catholicism: The Formation of Local Religion in Colonial Mexico by Krystle Farman Sweda Advisor: Herman Bennett “Black Catholicism: The Formation of Local Religion in Colonial Mexico” examines the emergence of Catholicism and its local expressions among Africans and their descendants in seventeenth-century New Spain.

In that century, New Spain (the Spanish term for colonial Mexico) was home to the second largest enslaved population and the largest free black population in the Western Hemisphere. My research studies the intricate, generational process of Catholic conversion among Mexico’s black population and how that process affected the formation of local religion. Previous scholars have largely overlooked early Catholic efforts of African conversion in Latin America and presented Afro-Christianity as a superficial religion that competed with African traditions or deviated from Spanish Catholic norms. I instead offer a new perspective on Christian indoctrination and black religiosity in the New World by highlighting how traditional forms of Catholic instruction – notably confessional moments and clerical interventions – initiated religious exchanges that informed black religious knowledge.

My work draws from Inquisition cases, ecclesiastical records, and confraternity constitutions to show how the Catholic Church shaped by the Tridentine reforms of the early modern era offered a space for multigenerational blacks to pursue personal relationships with clergymen, mendicant brothers, and the lay devout that enriched their Christian experience. With a focus on the daily iv interracial social interactions in parochial centers, I argue that black parishioners with a profound knowledge of the Catholic faith became prominent lay figures who molded Christian practices. They navigated a complex social formation, composed of slaves, free blacks, Indians, Spaniards, and castas (racially mixed, non-Spanish persons), communicating their conceptions of the faith to their fellow parishioners. My findings broaden the scholarly depiction of Catholicism in the early modern Iberian world by recognizing black Catholics as engaged participants, active shapers, and, most importantly, cultural agents.

v Acknowledgements The monumental work of a dissertation can at times feel daunting and rather isolating. But, at other times, the act of researching and writing a doctoral thesis can bring together a vast array of people, both inside and outside of academia. As such, the completion of this dissertation requires a recognition of the profound gratitude that I hold for all the individuals who supported me and assisted me over the proceeding years. However, that said, the following acknowledgements cannot possibly shed light on all individuals who helped me through graduate school and the dissertation writing process.

Regardless, it should serve as a start. Without the help of my adviser, Herman Bennett, this project would not have succeeded in its initial stages. Through class work, independent studies, and the random drop-ins during my first three years of CUNY, he offered me direction and critical feedback that many graduate students would be jealous to receive. My committee members, Amy Chazkel, Sarah Covington, and Amanda Wunder supported the completion of the dissertation, offering me perspectives that pulled me out of the intense study of Afro-Mexico and into the history of modern Latin America and early modern religion.

Collectively, I received the best professional training from the professors of the Graduate Center, City University of New York. I could not have succeeded in writing this dissertation without the generous contributions of various libraries, foundations, and institutions. In the spring of 2017, the Huntington Library opened its doors to me with the Msgr. Weber Fellowship, allowing me to complete a month of uninterrupted research in their Inquisition collection and to concentrate on the secondary readings that eventually shaped the direction of this project.

Each summer the Graduate Center offered me fellowships through the Advanced Research Collective, the Early Research Initiative, the Center for Latin American, Caribbean, and Latino Studies, Renaissance Certificate Program, and the Office of Educational Opportunity and Diversity that took me to the vi Acknowledgements Archivo General de Indios in Seville, Spain and the many archival sites in Mexico. Finally, the Graduate Center and the PhD Program in History awarded me with two consecutive years of dissertation writing fellows, the Florence Bloch Fellowship and the Paul Naish Dissertation Fellowship, that allowed me to concentrate on writing the dissertation without the distractions of other obligations. A final dissertation award from the Mellon-Sawyer Seminar on Cultures and Histories of Freedom offered a substantial amount that took me into the fall defense. My time abroad in the archives of Spain and Mexico remains to this day some of my most memorable moments in academia.

Travel in Seville, Mexico City, and Puebla introduced me to the rich culture, history, and culinary wonders the cities had to offer. During this travel I also encountered a number of people who quickly became supportive friends and colleagues. My gratitude especially goes out to Scarlett MacPherson and the Muñoz family for opening their doors to me during the five and a half weeks I spent at the archives in Mexico City and Puebla. My graduate career at the City University of New York and the University of Kentucky gave me friendships that will last regardless of where life may lead us.

Amanda Bozcar, my dearest friend from my early days at the University of Kentucky, kept me honest through the masters’ thesis and dissertation with page-a-days, helped me work through newly-formed ideas, and provided a much-needed editorial eye. Thank you, eternally, for the wonderful conversations, the endless encouragement, and the reminders to “just finish the damn thing.” Bridget Ash has spent the last few years serving in the invaluable position of personal muse. Her conversations, words of reassurance, and pointed questions never ceased to inspire me. During our time teaching at Lehman College and through our final years of dissertating, Scott Ackerman quickly became an intellectual sounding board and a dear friend.

We commiserated, celebrated, and sometimes just grabbed a beer in the hopes of making it through the rest of the program in vii Acknowledgements one piece. To him I say: “Behold! The dissertation.” Finally, a writing group formed by myself, Scott Ackerman, John Winters, and Luke Reynolds not only made the writing process less isolating with our boisterous video meetings, but also gave me the chance to talk through ideas and receive decisive and intellectually-sound comments on each chapter of this dissertation. Words cannot adequately express the support I received from friends and family outside of academia. Owen and Christine Richetti showed me the importance of taking time to enjoy the happiness family has to offer, which helped me sustain the rigors of academia.

Emily Sward- Williams and Andrew Williams, as best friends to my husband and me, never failed to remind me of the intellectual vigor I possessed and the great opportunities yet to come. Space requires me to neglect a number of important friends, including Emily Harmon, Brian Orem, Coleen Dixon, Joanna Lile, Lizzie Moore, and Alex Simon, among others, but it does not mean they hold a less significant place in my heart. From my childhood until today, my parents, Ken and Beverly Farman, have pushed me to excel in all my endeavors, encouraging me even when my excitement over the mundane seemed a bit misplaced to them. I would not be where I am today if it was not for their love and desire to see me succeed.

My aunt Mary Harmon has proved my strongest cheerleader throughout my academic career. She reviewed my applications, encouraged me to apply to the University of Kentucky, toured schools with me, consistently told me about the expansive opportunities education has to offer, and continually assured me that graduate school was 80% perseverance and that I would not fail. My in-laws, Maribeth and Jeff Sweda, opened their arms to me from the moment I entered their lives, always encouraging me and making me feel like a daughter of their own. A final commendation goes to my entire family – my parents, my brother Chris Farman, and sister Stephanie Orem.

Through the continual flood of family pictures, discussions viii Acknowledgements of great adventures, and celebration in all of life’s experiences, they kept me grounded, reminding me that family always comes first. The love and support I received from the two most important people in my life, my sister Stephanie Orem, and husband TJ Sweda, could fill an acknowledgements section in their own right. Even though they appear last, they remain, by far, the most important. During my years in graduate school, they dropped everything the minute I needed their attention.

My sister, my best friend and closest companion, has listened to my mundane problems, concerns, and excitements with an outsider’s perspective for my entire life, often providing a voice of reason when I needed it most. My husband taught me how to look at life with an engineer’s perspective, critically analyzing the world around me and reminding me to always ask ‘why?” five times before moving forward with an idea. He has supported me in every single crazy endeavor I have had, sometimes pushing me further than I had even known possible, and always guaranteed I had the wherewithal to succeed. It is to both of them that I dedicate this dissertation.

ix TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements v Introduction: Writing Black Catholic History 1 Chapter One: Ecclesiastical Policies in the República de Españoles 33 Chapter Two: Clerical Interventions and Confessional Moments 72 Chapter Three: Black Confraternities in a Colonial Parish 106 Chapter Four: The Social World of Black Parishioners 150 Chapter Five: The Spiritual Authority of Black Parishioners 195 Conclusion: Black Catholics in Colonial Mexico 223 Bibliography 228 x Introduction: Writing Black Catholic History In Mexico City on July 26, 1629, the free black Juan Roque laid on his death bed “sick with the illness God had chosen to give him.” Concerned about the afterlife and hoping to minimize his soul’s stay in purgatory, he called upon a local notary to record his last will and testament before his close friends and family. He affirmed his belief in “all that the Holy Mother Church preaches and teaches,” requesting the intercession of the “always glorious Virgin Mary, Mother of God”1 before carefully outlining his wishes for a Christian burial. Juan asked to have his body interred in the church of the local Hospital of Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception. If this church was “unable to accommodate” him, he wished to be buried in the Santa Veracruz parish church, where he was a lifelong parishioner.

For the funeral service, he requested that “twelve persons accompany [his] body” alongside members of the “confraternities where [he was] a brother.”2 With his funeral planned, complete with a “solemn mass with the presence of a deacon and a subdeacon,” he turned his attention toward outlining the requiem masses said for his soul and the pious bequests to the church that would aid in his salvation.