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Louisiana State University LSU Digital Commons LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses Graduate School 1992 The Use of Goal Setting and Contingency Contracting for Improving Children's Homework Performance. Deborah Lynn Miller Louisiana State University and Agricultural & Mechanical College Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.edu/gradschool_disstheses Recommended Citation Miller, Deborah Lynn, "The Use of Goal Setting and Contingency Contracting for Improving Children's Homework Performance. LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses.edu/gradschool_disstheses/5400 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at LSU Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses by an authorized administrator of LSU Digital Commons.

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UMI University Microfilms International A Bell & Howell Information Company 300 North Zeeb Road. Ml 48106-1346 USA 313/761-4700 800/521-0600 Order Number 9302918 The use of goal setting and contingency contracting for improving children's homework performance Miller, Deborah Lynn, Ph. The Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical Col. Ann Arbor, MI 48106 THE USE OF GOAL SETTING AND CONTINGENCY CONTRACTING FOR IMPROVING CHILDREN'S HOMEWORK PERFORMANCE A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in The Department of Psychology by Deborah L., Louisiana State University, 1989 August, 1992 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my appreciation to those individuals who provided much assistance throughout the course of my dissertation.

First, I would like to thank my committee members for their guidance and support during this project. These individuals included Phillip Brantley, Ph., Johnny Matson, Ph., Lisa Moore, Ph., David Pugh, Ph., and Arthur Riopelle, Ph. Special recognition goes to Mary Lou Kelley, Ph., my committee chairperson and mentor, who's faith in my abilities and encouragement over the last five years have greatly contributed to my development as a psychologist. I am grateful to all those who aided with data collection, particularly Alice Kahle, M., who devoted much time and effort to this project despite her own busy schedule.

Also, the friendships of Kevin Everett, Ph. (even if he did finish first), Brad Thomason, Ph.2B, and Alyson McCain, M. They each contributed greatly to my graduate career in terms of both professional and some less than professional matters. Special recognition goes to Adam Landis, whose patience and understanding throughout this process have been constant.

Adam deserves an honorary degree in ii psychology as he has devoted so much to seeing me through this project. Finally, I cannot say enough concerning the support and encouragement I have received from my family, particularly from my parents. My achievements thus far would have been far fewer without them and I am truly grateful for all they have given me. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii LIST OF TABLES vi LIST OF FIGURES vii ABSTRACT viii INTRODUCTION 1 METHOD 32 RESULTS 50 DISCUSSION 64 REFERENCES 73 APPENDICES A CONSENT FORM 82 B HOMEWORK PROBLEM CHECKLIST 83 C CONNERS PARENT RATING SCALE-48 84 D CONNERS TEACHER RATING SCALE-28 85 E HOMEWORK SCORING PROTOCOL 86 F TREATMENT EVALUATION INVENTORY- SHORT FORM 87 G PARENT'S CONSUMER SATISFACTION QUESTIONNAIRE 88 H HOMEWORK INTERACTION CODING SYSTEM- REVISED 98 I INTERACTION BEHAVIOR CODE-REVISED 105 J TREATMENT INTEGRITY QUESTIONNAIRE 107 K DEMOGRAPHIC QUESTIONNAIRE 108 iv L HOMEWORK OBSERVATION GUIDELINES 110 M HOMEWORK COMPLETION MONITORING SHEET- BASELINE 112 N HOMEWORK AND GOAL SETTING: PARENT HANDOUT 113 O HOMEWORK AND CONTINGENCY CONTRACTING: PARENT HANDOUT 116 P HOMEWORK CONTRACT 120 Q CONTRACT MONITORING SHEET 121 R CODING SHEET 122 S HOMEWORK INTERACTION CODING SYSTEM- REVISED.

PERCENT OF INTERVALS IN WHICH EACH HICS-R CATEGORY WAS OBSERVED 124 T INTERACTION BEHAVIOR CODE-REVISED. PERCENT OF INTERVALS OF POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE BEHAVIOR FOR PARENTS AND CHILDREN ACROSS TREATMENT PHASES 128 VITA 132 v LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Conners Parent Rating Scale (CPRS-48) T-Scores 35 3. Conners Teacher Rating Scale (CTRS-28) T-Scores 36 4.

Homework Goals Worksheet 45 5. Homework Problem Checklist: Pre- and Post-Treatment Scores 57 6. Interaction Behavior Code-Revised: Goal Setting. Percent of Intervals in which each IBC-R Category Was Observed.

Interaction Behavior Code-Revised: Contract Sessions. Percent of Intervals in which each IBC-R Category Was Observed. Parents' Consumer Satisfaction Questionnaire Scores 62 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Percent of on-task behavior across subjects 51 2.

Percent of homework completed accurately across subj ects 53 vii ABSTRACT Research suggests that homework has favorable effects on learning and student achievement. However, research directed at improving homework completion and accuracy has been limited in scope. The present study examined the effects of goal setting and contingency contracting on children's homework performance. Subjects were four parent-child dyads in which the child exhibited clinically significant homework problems.

Dependent variables of primary interest included direct observation of children's on-task behavior, work accuracy, and Homework Problem Checklist scores (Anesko, Schoiock, Ramirez, & Levine, 1987). Using a combination of multiple baseline and withdrawal (ABAB) designs, goal setting and contingency contracting produced significant improvements in children's homework accuracy. Results concerning the effects of treatment on percent of on-task behavior were less clear although two of four subjects evidenced significant improvements in on-task behavior. Homework Problem Checklist scores improved significantly for two of four subjects.

Social validity of the procedures was supported by parent ratings on standardized questionnaires. Methodological contributions and limitations are discussed as are suggestions for further research. viii INTRODUCTION As ubiquitous as homework might seem, particularly to students, teachers, and parents, its importance and contribution to learning has been debated. Those speaking against homework have suggested that it is an unwholesome activity that lacks professional supervision and allows children to practice their mistakes (Paschal, Weinstein, & Walberg, 1984).

Others propose that homework interferes with important family and community activities thus decreasing children's play and leisure time and adversely affecting family life (LaConte, 1981; McDermott, Goldman, & Varenne, 1984). In contrast, proponents of homework believe that it fosters a closer relationship between home and school and promotes independent work and study habits (McDermott et al. However, much of the literature on homework consists of opinion pieces or methodologically flawed studies. Indeed, relatively few homework studies are empirical and results between studies are often conflictual (Foyle & Bailey, 1988; Keith, 1982; Paschal et al.

However, many reviews of empirical research on homework conclude that it has favorable effects on learning (Goldstein, 1960; Hedges, 1971; Keith, Reimers, Fehrman, Pottebaum, & Aubey, 1986; Paschal et al. 1 2 Homework problems are common and a source of conflict for many families (Anesko & O'Leary, 1982). Unfortunately, few studies have examined methods of improving children's homework performance. Goal setting and contingency contracting are two procedures used successfully to modify academic and other problem behaviors.

This review provides a detailed summary of the literature within three areas: homework, goal setting, and contingency contracting. Homework and Academic Achievement In the United States, average scores on achievement tests have declined for several decades. Cross-national studies on academic achievement reveal that American children exhibit only mediocre levels of achievement in mathematics and science as compared to Chinese and Japanese children (Stevenson, Lee, & Stigler, 1986; Stigler, Lee, Lucker, & Stevenson, 1982; Stigler, Lee, & Stevenson, 1987; Walberg, 1984). For example, Chen and Stevenson (1989) analyzed interview, questionnaire, and achievement test data from 60 schools in American, Chinese, and Japanese cities.

American children receive the least homework and family help. Children in cultures that give longer homework assignments obtain higher scores on achievement tests. American students might therefore increase achievement scores through increased amounts of assigned homework (Chen & Stevenson, 1989). 3 Although research suggests that homework generally exhibits a moderate, positive effect on student achievement, other variables such as time, study skills, and student characteristics are rarely differentiated from those effects (Keith, 1982).

Using a large, nationally representative sample of American high school seniors (N=20,364), Keith and his colleagues utilized path analysis to investigate the relation between homework time and high school grades and between homework and achievement test scores (Keith, 1982; Keith & Page, 1985). Results indicated that amount of time spent on homework is an important predictor of students' grades even after controlling for other variables such as race, family background, and field of study. Further, increased homework time is positively associated with increased achievement, regardless of ability level. In comparison, then, to other variables (e., race, SES, family background), homework is a manipulable variable that can be used as an intervention, both at a system and individual level, to improve academic achievement (Keith & Page, 1985).

Support for the relation of homework to academic achievement also can be drawn from research on academic response rate. Academic achievement is positively associated with the amount of time students spend actively attending to instructional tasks (Graden, 4 Thurlow, & Ysseldyke, 1983; Leach & Dolan, 1985; Rosenshine, 1979; Rosenshine & Berliner, 1978). Thus, any procedure that increases time on-task or engaged time will enhance learning. For example, in one study, student engaged time accounted for 58% of the variance in mathematics achievement (Leach & Tunnecliffe, 1984).

Thus, homework, an activity that provides students with increased opportunities to attend and respond to instructional tasks, can also augment students' engaged time and thus enhance academic achievement. Parent Involvement with Homework: Help or Hindrance? It appears that homework generally enhances learning and achievement. Does parent involvement in the homework process further enhance students• achievement? Few studies have specifically addressed this question. Research on homework generally has not investigated the degree or value of parent involvement in homework.

Parent involvement is negatively correlated with achievement (Chen & Stevenson, 1989; Epstein, 1983; Wolf, 1979). That is, students receiving more parent help with homework exhibit lower levels of achievement. This negative relationship may indicate that teachers are encouraging parental assistance for children needing additional help, that parents recognize their children's weaknesses and offer help, or that low achieving children request or require parental help more frequently 5 (Epstein, 1983). Based on the negative correlation between parent involvement in homework and academic achievement, Chen and Stevenson (1989) concluded that parent involvement with homework may serve a remedial function.

However, these studies generally suffer from small sample sizes, definitional problems, retrospective reports, and unequal cell sizes, in addition to the problems inherent with any correlational research (e. Maertens and Johnston (1972) conducted an experimental study in which approximately 400 children received one of three interventions: (a) no homework, (b) homework with immediate parent feedback, and (c) homework with delayed parent feedback. Both homework conditions significantly improved test scores over the no homework condition. In addition, parent involvement resulted in consistent completion of homework assignments.

However, differences between immediate and delayed feedback were not obtained. Maertens and Johnston (1972) therefore suggested that planned parent involvement was a significant contributor to the effectiveness of the homework treatment.