David Folsom và sự trỗi dậy của chủ nghĩa dân tộc Choctaw: Luận án Thạc sĩ của Barry Eugene Thorne

DAVID FOLSOM AND THE EMERGENCE OF CHOCTAW NATIONALISM By BARRY EUGENE THORNE Jj Bachelor of Arts in Arts and Sciences Oklahoma State University Stillwater, Oklahoma 1981 Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate College of the Oklahoma State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS May, 1988 \ I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I ~. I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I DAVID FOLSOM AND THE EMERGENCE OF CHOCTAW NATIONALISM Thesis Approved: Thesis Adviser ii 1:JO~j~j03 PREFACE Few historians have used nationalism as a concept relevant to Native Americans. Because of this oversight there is a need for re-evaluation. During the early nineteenth century the Choctaw Indians of present day Mississippi displayed a strong nationalistic movement that resulted in the overthrow of the old political order and the institution of constitutional government.

In all, they passed from a chieftaincy form of organization to a national one with elected officials.1 What constitutes nationalism has generated much scholarly debate. Its definition has varied from time to time and scholar to scholar. Yet there are certain beliefs and conditions that most academicians agree point to the existence of nationalism. These can be summarized as: 1.

A national territory with clearly defined boundaries. Shared cultural characteristics such as language, customs, manners, and social institutions which the nation wants to preserve. The desire for an independent or sovereign government based on the principle of self- determination and loyalty to self-rule. A shared belief in a common history or ethnic identity.

Love and esteem for fellow nationals over and above that of "foreigners. A devotion to the national entity. A pride in the past achievements and sorrow for past defeats of the nation. A shared disregard for other nations.

This may take the form of hostility if those nations become threatening. In the early nineteenth century, the Choctaws demonstrated all these characteristics to some extent.2 One of the first Choctaw nationalists was David Folsom, and his life illustrates the development and early growth of Choctaw nationalism. He was the leader of a rising group of comparatively wealthy first generation mixed-bloods who were bicultural in outlook but considered themselves Choctaws. Folsom was more conscious of American society than most of his contemporaries.

Viewing the progress of mankind from a rational perspective, he saw Choctaw society as a historical reality which the white man threatened to destroy. Folsom belonged to both of the societies which were confronting one another and he experienced inwardly the clash between the two. Both were a part of him, and the destruction of one of them meant the symbolic annihilation of a part of himself. His resolution of this conflict turned him into a "new man." David Folsom derived his identification as a Choctaw from a new kind of understanding.

Whereas traditionally the Choctaws justified their existence through myth, Folsom replaced this with the Lockean concept of "human rights." His most significant contribution to Choctaw thought was the idea that the Choctaws inherently possessed rights and iv deserved justice because they were human beings. The Anglo challenge to their rights gave rise to the concept of Choctaw solidarity, on which he based his political career. The logical fulfillment of this mode of thought was the creation of a Choctaw Nation in which nationalism would replace myth as a means to sanctify the existence of the Choctaw people. To accomplish his goals Folsom developed a program which stressed the preservation of the "national homeland" and self-strengthening through education, the development of industry, and rigid morality.

He enlisted Christian missionaries as allies in the task of transforming a people who were uneducated, by Anglo standards, into citizens of a modern republican state. His staunch defense of the Choctaw territory in present-day Mississippi contributed most to the success of the Choctaw Christian nationalist movement. By offering the best strategy for preserving Choctaw sovereignty over their mythical homeland, he received the support of many who still thought in mythical terms despite the fact that his movement opposed such modes of thought. During the course of completing this thesis I have become indebted to many people.

Special thanks go to W. David Baird for his patient direction and editing of the manuscript. Huston and Helga H. Harriman both contributed thoughtful suggestions for improvement.

Thanks to the History Department at the Oklahoma State University for offering me an assistantship to pursue my studies. To Mary Jane Warde and Clyde Ellis v who took precious time out of their busy schedules to help edit and offer suggestions and encouragement, I offer my sincere regard and appreciation. Without the encouragement and assistence of my Mother and Father this work could not have been accomplished. Lastly, I would like to express my thanks, love, and admiration for my wife, Rouwei, who somehow managed to maintain her sanity during the tribulations of putting up with me, holding a full-time job, and attending graduate school all at the same time.

For works dealing with Native American nationalism see: William G. McLoughlin, Cherokee Renascence in the New Republic (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); Robert Berkhofer, Jr., "The Political Context of a New Indian History," Pacific Historical Review 40 (August 1971): 357-382. Adapted from Boyd c. Shafer's, Nationalism: Its Nature and Interpreters, AHA Pamphlet 701 (Washington: American Historical Association, 1976), 10-11; For a discussion of Nationalism see: Anthony D.

Smith, Theories of Nationalism (New York: Harper & Row, 1971); ib1d., The Ethnic Revival (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981). vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. THE PATH TOWARD NATIONALISM, 1776-1816 • • • • • II. THE PATH TOWARD REVOLUTION, 1820-1825.

THE CHOCTAW REVOLUTION, 1825-1830. THE REMOVAL CRISIS, 1829-1830 • • • • • • • • • • 89 VI. DAVID FOLSOM AND THE CHOCTAW REPUBLIC IN THE WEST, 1830-1849 ••. • • • • • • • • • 127 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1.

Choctaw Land Cessions, 1801-1830 • • •. The District Divisions of the Choctaw Nation Before Removal • • • • • • • •. American Board Mission Stations • • •. Choctaw District Divisions in the Indian Territory • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 112 ix David Folsom.

(Courtesy Oklahoma Historical Society.) CHAPTER I THE PATH TOWARD NATIONALISM, 1776-1816 David Folsom was a revolutionary Choctaw thinker whose heritage and formative years were exceptionally critical to his intellectual development. He was born on 25 January 1791, to Nathaniel Folsom, a prosperous white trader, and Ai-Ne-Chi-Hoyo, who was descended from a proud and prominent "royal" family of chiefs. This mixed parentage imbued David with prestige, wealth, and the opportunity to learn of two societies. Because his father kept an inn for whites traveling through the Choctaw country, young David frequently conversed with learned white men.

He became obsessed with education and obtained a short stint of formal learning at a school on the Elk River in Tennessee. His heritage and early experiences caused David to view the relative weakness of the Choctaws as the result of historic processes--a failure on the part of the Choctaws to adapt to their changing environment. For Folsom, reason was superior to myth and this explained the white man's superiority. Wanting to preserve such historical Choctaw attributes as political independence and language, he concluded that his people must substitute the rationalism of the white man for their mythic reality.

1 At the outbreak of the American Revolution, David 2 3 Folsom's father, Nathaniel Folsom, moved with his family from Georgia into the Choctaw country. As Loyalists, they perhaps hoped to escape persecution from local revolutionaries. Having learned that land in the Choctaw country was extremely fertile and the opportunities for trade abundant, Nathaniel's father determined to make his fortune in that land where people said "money grew on bushes." But as the family entered the Choctaw country, they met some of their former neighbors from Georgia who had emigrated earlier and were leaving as a result of illness; they warned Nathaniel's father not to settle in that territory because the climate was not healthful. Unwilling to risk the lives of his family, Nathaniel's father sought a new location farther north within the Chickasaw country.

As the family prepared to depart, Nathaniel quarreled with his father and elected to stay among the Choctaws.2 Nathaniel was not alone for long. He soon entered into a joint trading venture with a man named Welsh, initiating a partnership that flourished for the next thirty years. Nathaniel then married I-Ah-Ne-Cha and Ai-Ne-Chi- Hoyo, two sisters from a "Royal" Choctaw family.3 Marriage into such a prominent family apparently brought him instant prestige among the Choctaws. The three settled at Bok tuklo, near present-day Philadelphia, Mississippi, where Nathaniel prospered and fathered a large family of mixed- blood children.4 Nathaniel held strong English Loyalist/nationalist sympathies.

When, in 1777, the British Superintendent of 4 Indian Affairs purchased from the Choctaws a tract of land along the Mississippi River as a Loyalist refuge, Nathaniel used his influence to restrain the Choctaws from attacking the Natchez settlement. In 1781, two years after the passage of British West Florida to Spain, Folsom led a band of about fifty Choctaws warriors in conjunction with a Loyalist attempt to regain control of West Florida. Nathaniel promised the Anglo rebels refuge within the Choctaw country should the enterprise fail. Such an offer demonstrated that Nathaniel was influential among the Indians.

Ultimately the revolt failed, but his spirit of nationalism would reappear later in David Folsom.5 Intermarriage to Europeans, the exceptional influence of white men, and the growing materialism of the Indians caused tremendous societal stress for the Choctaws. The accumulation of material wealth by certain individuals created distinct social classes which threatened traditional concepts of power and prestige. Contact with Europeans brought dramatic changes in the forms of economic activity. Hunting for the skin trade supplanted the old self- sufficient economic system, and the Choctaws developed a dependency upon a market they could not control.

The basis of their economy was unsound because the demand for manufactured goods constantly exceeded the supply of deer used as a medium of exchange. Generally the intermarried white population opposed the skin trade and promoted cattle herding and agriculture. This created further societal fragmentation as the Choctaws became polarized over which 5 pursuit, hunting or agriculture, was better. Even the chiefs began clamoring over the right to control trade or distribute annuities.

Indeed the Choctaws were suffering through a painful transition from which they could not retreat. Some Choctaw leaders realized, by the time of David Folsom's birth, that their people must change if they hoped to maintain their separate existence. As chief Franchimastabe explained in 1792, the era "of living and hunting by the gun was ending."6 David Folsom began life during a life-threatening period for the Choctaws. A drought which began the previous summer destroyed much of the tribe's crops, and an unknown disease killed many of their horses and cattle.

The lure of the skin trade had prompted many warriors to pursue the hunt exclusively and ignore their traditional subsistence agricultural system. Yet over-hunting reduced the native game population to such an extent that it became virtually impossible to obtain enough skins for trade with white traders. To make matters worse, the added demands of the hunting economy forced many Choctaws to abandon any form of horticulture altogether. The dearth of food caused desperate warriors to raid the Spanish country for beef, an action that prompted the Spanish to retaliate through their Creek allies.7 Aside from these natural and political disasters, the Folsom family experienced their own share of catastrophes.

David's mother, AI-Ne-Chi-Hoyo, contracted pneumonia prior to his birth.