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University of Wisconsin Milwaukee UWM Digital Commons Theses and Dissertations May 2019 From Reduction to Empowerment: a Second Look at Access to World Language Education for the African American Student Alicia Johnson University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Follow this and additional works at: https://dc.edu/etd Part of the Curriculum and Instruction Commons, and the Teacher Education and Professional Development Commons Recommended Citation Johnson, Alicia, "From Reduction to Empowerment: a Second Look at Access to World Language Education for the African American Student" (2019). Theses and Dissertations.edu/etd/2083 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by UWM Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of UWM Digital Commons. For more information, please contact open-access@uwm.

FROM REDUCTION TO EMPOWERMENT: A SECOND LOOK AT ACCESS TO WORLD LANGUAGE EDUCATION FOR THE AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENT by Alicia Johnson A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Urban Education at The University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee May 2019 ABSTRACT FROM REDUCTION TO EMPOWERMENT: A SECOND LOOK AT ACCESS TO WORLD LANGUAGE EDUCATION FOR THE AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENT by Alicia Johnson The University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 2019 Under the Supervision of Professor Barbara L. College readiness policies dictate the number of credits of world language study a student ought to obtain by the time he / she graduates from high school (Barnes, Slate, & Rojas-LeBouef, 2010). However, traditional schooling practices camouflaged by “neutral” education policies limit African American students’ access to quality curricular and instructional discourses (Apple, 1999; Gillborn, 2014; López, 2003). Limited access to enriching educational goods and resources, world language instruction in particular, causes them to question their self-worth and academic identities, decreases their classroom engagement and motivation to learn, and impacts their secondary and post-secondary learning outcomes (Fernández, 2002; Pringle, Lyons, & Booker, 2010; Saffold & Longwell-Grice, 2008; Weinstein, Gregory, & Strambler, 2004).

Therefore, this study used critical race theory to examine the high school world language experiences of 17 African American undergraduate students enrolled at a Midwestern four-year university. The participants in this study discussed the impact of school- and non-school-based adults as well as same-race peer networks on their secondary and post-secondary goals. Their counter-narratives not only provided evidence of how African American students break from traditional schooling structures to learn a needed world language, they also show how this particular population of students reject the dominant epistemologies that invalidate their academic experiences. Findings from this study suggest education policymakers critically ii examine the policies that affect African American students’ every day experiences as well as challenge teachers and school counselors to adopt culturally relevant practices that meet students where they are.

iii ©Copyright by Alicia R. Johnson, 2019 All Rights Reserved iv In loving memory of Howard and Bernice Ross Forever in my heart. v TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER Introduction ………………………………………………………………………. 2 Purpose and Significance ………………………………………………………… 2 Key Terms and Definitions ……………………………………………………….

4 College Readiness ………………………………………………………… 4 I: A Literature Review of the Cognitive, Non-Cognitive, and Social Benefits of Language Learning …………………………………………………… 5 Searching the Literature …………………………………………………………. 5 Benefits of Learning a World Language …………………………………………. 8 Cognitive benefits of learning a world language …………………………. 9 Non-cognitive benefits of learning a world language …………………….

11 Social capital acquired because of learning a world language……………. 14 Social benefits of learning a world language……………………… 14 Social benefits of learning a world language for post-secondary experiences…………………………………. 15 Challenges to students’ accumulation of social capital for a successful post-secondary experience…………………16 Policies that Shape Students’ Opportunities to Learn a World Language …………………………………………………………………………. 18 Marginalization Effect for Students of Color …………………………………….

29 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………… 32 vi II: Critical Race Theory as a Framework for this Study……………………………… 33 History of Critical Race Theory …………………………………………………. 35 The Tenets of Critical Race Theory ………………………………………………. 37 The Intersectionality of CRT and Access to Quality Educational Programs …. 41 The Intersectionality of CRT in World Language Education …………………….

44 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………… 49 III: Methodology ……………………………………………………………………… 52 Working within a Qualitative Research Paradigm ………………………………. 52 Phenomenology as a Qualitative Research Framework ……………………………55 Understanding the Intersectionality of CRT and Phenomenology ………………. 57 Research Context and Generation of Data ………………………………………… 58 Selection of participants …………………………………………………… 58 Recruitment – Round 1……………………………………………. 58 Results from the first round of recruitment activities……… 62 Recruitment – Round 2…………………………………………….

63 Results from the second round of recruitment activities…. 65 Rationale for inclusion and exclusion……………………………………. 68 Interviews as a data generation tool ………………………………………. 70 Focus group interviews…………………………………………….

71 Selection of focus group participants………………………. 72 vii Data Analysis……………………………………………………………………… 74 Coding students’ experiences……………………………………………… 74 Using CRT as an analytic lens……………………………………………. 75 Trustworthiness and Credibility in the Research Process ………………………… 77 Protection of Human Subjects ……………………………………………………. 79 The Role of Reflexivity in the Research Process ………………………………….

80 The Playwright’s Opening Commentary on the Development of a School-Based Play ……………………………………………………………. 82 The playwright’s commentary about the process of designing a play……………………………………………………………. 84 Inter-personal conflict……………………………………………… 85 Extra-personal conflict……………………………………………. 85 Limitations of this Study ………………………………………………………….

86 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………… 90 IV: Research Findings …………………………………………………………………. 91 Secrets, Barriers, and the Hidden World Language Curriculum ………………….92 Setting ………………………………………………………………………………93 Academic Programs, Graduation Policies, and the World Language Program ………………………………………………………. 94 Cast of Characters ………………………………………………………………… 97 Act I: School- and Non-School-based Adults: Gatekeepers and Purveyors of Social Capital ………………………………………………………. 100 viii Scene I: Classroom Teachers as Gatekeepers and Purveyors of Social Capital …………………………………………………………….

101 Scene I: Analysis and Findings …………………………………. 105 Summary Analysis of Act I – Scene I ……………………………. 117 Scene II: School Counselors as Gatekeepers of Social Capital …………. 118 Scene II: Analysis and Findings ………………………………….

120 Summary Analysis of Act I – Scene II …………………………… 122 Scene III: Mentors as Purveyors of Social Capital ………………………. 125 Scene III: Analysis and Findings …………………………………. 125 Summary Analysis of Act I – Scene III …………………………… 126 Scene IV: Home-based Caregivers as Purveyors of Social Capital ………. 127 Scene IV: Analysis and Findings ………………………………….

127 Summary Analysis of Act I – Scene IV ……………………………128 Summary Analysis of Act I ……………………………………………….128 Act II: Social Peer Networks as a Source of Social Capital ………………………. 129 Scene I: The Construction of Same-race Peer Counter-spaces ……………. 129 Scene I: Analysis and Findings ……………………………………. 130 Summary Analysis of Act II – Scene I …………………………….

132 Scene II: Peer Networks as a Site of Information Sharing ……………….133 Scene II: Analysis and Findings ……………………………………133 Summary Analysis of Act II – Scene II ……………. 134 Summary Analysis of Act II …………………………………………. 134 Act III: The Counter-story: How Intrinsic Motivators led Participants to Pursue a World Language beyond the Minimum 2-year Requirement ………………………………………………………………. 135 ix Scene I: Instrumental Motivation ………………………………………….

136 Scene I: Analysis and Findings ……………………………………. 137 Summary Analysis of Act III – Scene I …………………………… 137 Scene II: Integrative Motivation …………………………………………. 137 Scene II: Analysis and Findings …………………………………. 138 Summary Analysis of Act III – Scene II ………………………….

139 Summary Analysis of Act III……………………………………………. 139 Introduction to the Talkback Discussion…………………………………………. 140 The Talkback Discussion …………………………………………………………. 140 The Talkback Summary …………………………………………………………… 154 V: Secrets, Barriers, and the Hidden World Language Curriculum: Implications for Educational Policy, Practice, and Further Research ………………………………………………………………….

157 Policy recommendations for changes to world language curriculum in public schools ………………………………………………. 158 Policy recommendations for changes to world language instruction in public schools ………………………………………………. 160 Policy recommendations for changes to world language teacher preparation programs ……………………………………………… 162 Policy recommendations for changes world language teacher professional development …………………………………………. 166 Recommendations that Maximize Students’ Interactions with Out of School Networks ……………………………………………………………169 Recommendations to support parental engagement in a school’s curricular and instructional decision-making processes…………………………… 170 x Recommendations that support active mentorship programs in public schools …………………………………………………………………….

171 Recommendations for Future Research …………………………………………. 171 Remarks on Improving Students’ Access to, and Interactions with, School Counselors ………………………………………………………………… 174 Concluding Thoughts ……………………………………………………………… 176 References ………….178 Appendix A: Recruitment Survey ………………………………………………………. 215 Appendix B: Pre-Screening Protocol ……………………………………………………. 216 Appendix C: Individual Interview Protocol ……………………………….

217 Appendix D: Focus Group Interview Protocol…………………………………………… 219 Appendix E: Consent to Participate in Interview Research ……………………………. 223 xi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 4.1: School- and non-school-based individuals that impact students and their learning outcomes ………………………………………………. 141 xii LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1: Chronology of Secondary Reforms from 1994-2010 …………………….2: World Language Requirements for Admissions and Graduation from Wisconsin’s Universities …………………………….1: The Language Course-Taking Patterns of the Research Participants……………………………………………….1: High School Graduation Requirements ………………………………….2: Revised High School Graduation Requirements ……………………….3: Student’s Background Information and Experiences with World Languages……………………………….……97 xiii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First, I would like to thank GOD, my father, confidant, counselor, best friend….my EVERYTHING, for His unfailing love, grace, and mercy. If it were not for His strength and inspiration, I would not have finished this project.

I would also like to thank my mentor and adviser, Dr. Barbara Bales, for pushing me in my academic endeavors. I did not always understand the direction in which she was taking me, but as I worked through the process, I began to see the vision for this project unfold. Therefore, I am grateful for her academic expertise.

I am also grateful for the other members of my committee, Drs. Joseph, Swaminathan, and Farmer-Hinton, for pushing me to put forth my best work. I did not always understand how this project would unfold, but things became clearer as I worked through their feedback and suggestions. I am also grateful to those African American undergraduate students who participated in this study.

Thank you for providing your counter-narratives as they shaped this study and provided me a platform to continue the fight for the equal educational rights of African American students in public schools. I would also like to thank those people who have helped me along the way: Ms. Jacqueline DeWalt, Dr. Gloria Hawkins, Dr.

Thandeka Chapman, Melissa Railey, Ron Smith, Libbey Lee, Ms. Alfonso Thurman, and Millie Wenzel. Thank you for your support and encouragement through the years. I would also like to thank the advisers and staff in the PEOPLE Program and the UWM Department of Spanish and Portuguese for the endless opportunities to work and grow as a student and a professional.

xiv Lastly, I would like to thank my family and friends for their love and support. Special recognition goes to my best friend, sister, and counselor, Erica McKinney and her parents Regina and Tim Anderson, my lifelong friends Toshiba Adams and Dr. Jennifer Brownson, and Arnaldo Rivas and his family. I am forever grateful for your love, support, mentorship, and encouragement.

xv Introduction During my tenure as a college instructor, I noticed an alarming phenomenon. The first problem concerned the low enrollment patterns of African American students in the 100-level Spanish courses. Less than five students in these courses were African American. To further complicate this problem, several of them withdrew from Spanish and decided to study American Sign Language.

To better understand this problem, I needed to investigate how public schools prepared African American students for post-secondary world language curriculum. Therefore, this dissertation for research critically examines the structural barriers that grant or deny African American students access to world language instruction and how these experiences affect students’ post-secondary pathways. Although the geopolitical, economic, and social milieu of the 20th century raised questions regarding the role and place of world language education in the secondary and post-secondary curriculum, there is a growing body of research that highlights the advantages of learning a second language (Baker, 2011); benefits that align with the values and expectations of college admissions and graduation policies. Learning a language is beneficial to students’ academic trajectories, and in addition to the academic benefits, the field of world language education is slowing gaining momentum in the United States.

In fact, several national, state, and local policies have been legislated to provide students opportunities to learn a language (e. the Elementary and Secondary Act, No Child Left Behind, Common Core State Standards, Every Student Succeeds Act, and the Wisconsin State Statutes).