An Introduction to Mill's Utilitarian Ethics - Sách của Henry R. West

P1: GCO CY255B/West-FM 0 521 828325 September 18, 2003 14:5 This page intentionally left blank ii P1: GCO CY255B/West-FM 0 521 828325 September 18, 2003 14:5 AN INTRODUCTION TO MILL’S UTILITARIAN ETHICS John Stuart Mill was the leading British philosopher of the nineteenth century, and his famous essay Utilitarianism is the most influential statement of the philosophy of utilitarianism: that actions, laws, policies, and institutions are to be evaluated by their utility or contribution to good or bad consequences. West has written the most up-to-date and user- friendly introduction to Mill’s utilitarianism available. This book serves as both a commentary to and interpretation of the text. It also defends Mill against his critics.

The first chapter traces Mill’s life and philosophical background. The second chapter analyzes Mill’s arguments against alternative theo- ries. Succeeding chapters address the theory of qualitative hedonism; the question of whether Mill was an act or rule utilitarian; the theories of sanctions and of the relation between justice and utility; and the “proof” of the principle of utility. An appendix reviews in detail the structure and arguments of Utilitarianism.

This book is primarily intended as a textbook for students in philosophy assigned to read Utilitarianism, but it should also prove helpful to students and professionals in other fields such as political science, history, and economics. West is a professor of philosophy at Macalester College in Minnesota. i P1: GCO CY255B/West-FM 0 521 828325 September 18, 2003 14:5 ii P1: GCO CY255B/West-FM 0 521 828325 September 18, 2003 14:5 An Introduction to Mill’s Utilitarian Ethics HENRY R. WEST Macalester College iii cambridge university press Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge cb2 2ru, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.org Information on this title: www.

West 2004 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published in print format 2004 isbn-13 978-0-511-18656-1 eBook (EBL) isbn-10 0-511-18656-8 eBook (EBL) isbn-13 978-0-521-82832-1 hardback isbn-10 0-521-82832-5 hardback isbn-13 978-0-521-53541-0 paperback isbn-10 0-521-53541-7 paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. P1: GCO CY255B/West-FM 0 521 828325 September 18, 2003 14:5 To Pat, my wife, for love, support, and patience v P1: GCO CY255B/West-FM 0 521 828325 September 18, 2003 14:5 vi P1: GCO CY255B/West-FM 0 521 828325 September 18, 2003 14:5 CONTENTS Acknowledgments page ix Method of Citation xi Introduction 1 1 Mill’s Life and Philosophical Background 8 2 Mill’s Criticism of Alternative Theories 28 3 Qualities of Pleasure 48 4 Was Mill an Act- or Rule-Utilitarian? 74 5 Sanctions and Moral Motivation 96 6 Mill’s “Proof” of the Principle of Utility 118 7 Utility and Justice 146 Appendix: An Overall View of Mill’s Utilitarianism 169 Bibliography 195 Index 213 vii P1: GCO CY255B/West-FM 0 521 828325 September 18, 2003 14:5 viii P1: GCO CY255B/West-FM 0 521 828325 September 18, 2003 14:5 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My greatest debt is to John M.

Robson and Toronto University Press for publishing the Collected Works of John Stuart Mill. With- out that, research on the corpus of Mill’s writings would have been difficult and limited. Another debt is to The Philosopher’s Index for leads to secondary literature. The paradigm of recent scholarship on Mill’s ethics is the work of David Lyons, whose careful analysis of Mill texts has been a model to emulate.

I have also been influenced by Alan Fuchs, who, through correspondence and conversation, has challenged some of my tendencies in interpretation. Conversations with Wendy Donner have also been helpful. In the early stages of this study, I was helped and encouraged by J. I am thankful to my colleagues Martin Gunderson and Karen J.

Warren for reading parts of the script and making helpful comments for revisions. The readers for Cambridge Univer- sity Press gave useful suggestions for revisions that improved the book. My friend Robert Foy read the entire manuscript, improving its style for clarity. I became interested in Mill from a prior interest in utili- tarianism, initiated by Professor Charles Baylis in a graduate course on Ethical Theory.

My interest was furthered by discus- sions with fellow graduate students such as David Lyons, David Kurtzmann, and Michael Stocker, and I wrote a doctoral dis- sertation on utilitarianism, with Roderick Firth and John Rawls as advisors. In three years of postdoctoral research at Oxford University I had the opportunity to discuss utilitarianism with R. Smart, Derek Parfit, Peter Singer, Jonathan ix P1: GCO CY255B/West-FM 0 521 828325 September 18, 2003 14:5 x Acknowledgments Glover, R. Frey, James Griffin, and others.

I have participated in NEH seminars, on utilitarianism led by Richard Brandt, and on consequentialism led by Jonathan Bennett. I benefited from the participation of others in those seminars, and I have bene- fited from commentators on papers that I have presented at pro- fessional meetings. Finally, my thinking on utilitarianism has been encouraged and kept on track by many years of conversa- tions and correspondence with my good friend Bart Gruzalski. My research and writing has been supported by Macalester College and by an NEH Fellowship for College Teachers.

P1: GCO CY255B/West-FM 0 521 828325 September 18, 2003 14:5 METHOD OF CITATION All page references to the writings of Mill are to the Collected Works of John Stuart Mill, 33 volumes, John M. Robson, General Editor (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1963–91). There are many reprints of Mill’s more popular works; for easy refer- ence to them I have included the book and/or chapter, section, or paragraph in parentheses or brackets even if the paragraph is not numbered in Mill’s text. xi P1: GCO CY255B/West-FM 0 521 828325 September 18, 2003 14:5 xii P1: GRF CY255B-03 0 521 828325 September 18, 2003 13:38 INTRODUCTION U TILITARIANISM is the ethical theory that the production of happiness and reduction of unhappiness should be the standard by which actions are judged right or wrong and by which the rules of morality, laws, public policies, and social institutions are to be critically evaluated.

According to utilitar- ianism, an action is not right or wrong simply because it is a case of telling the truth or lying; and the moral rule against lying is not in itself correct. Lying is wrong because, in general, it has bad consequences. And the moral rule against lying can be subjected to empirical study to justify some cases of lying, such as to avoid a disastrous consequence in saving someone’s life. Utilitarianism is one of the major ethical philosophies of the last two hundred years, especially in the English-speaking world.

Even if there are few philosophers who call themselves utilitarians, those who are not utilitarians often regard utilitari- anism as the most important alternative philosophy, the one to be replaced by their own. Examples of the latter are intuition- ists, such as E. Ross,2 early in the twen- tieth century, and, more recently, John Rawls, whose book A Theory of Justice3 contrasts his principles of justice with utilitar- ian principles and contrasts his contractarian foundation for his principles with the grounds for utilitarian principles. Some of the most prominent ethical philosophers of recent years have 1 E.

Carritt, Ethical and Political Thinking. Ross, The Right and the Good. 3 John Rawls, A Theory of Justice. 1 P1: GRF CY255B-03 0 521 828325 September 18, 2003 13:38 An Introduction to Mill’s Utilitarian Ethics explicitly considered themselves utilitarians.

Examples would be Richard Brandt,4 J.6 Nearly all introductory courses in ethics include utilitarianism as one important theory to be considered. And public policy is often based on cost-benefit analysis, perhaps not using pleasure and pain as the measures of utility but rather using some proxies for welfare and harm, such as consumer or voter preference or economic goods. Thus utilitarianism has an important place in contemporary ethics.7 John Stuart Mill’s essay entitled Utilitarianism8 is the most widely read presentation of a utilitarian ethical philosophy. It is frequently assigned in introductory courses on ethics or moral philosophy in colleges and universities and included as an examination topic at both graduate and undergraduate lev- els.

It has been the subject of numerous disputes in books and in philosophical periodicals regarding its proper interpretation, and it has been the subject of numerous attacks and defenses by those who disagree or agree with its conclusions and supporting arguments. Brandt, A Theory of the Good and the Right; Facts, Values, and Morality, and other writings. Smart, “An Outline of a System of Utilitarian Ethics,” in Utilitarianism: For and Against, by J. Smart and Bernard Williams, eds.

Hare, Moral Thinking: Its Levels, Method, and Point, and other writings. 7 A textbook illustrating this is William H. Shaw’s Contemporary Ethics: Taking Account of Utilitarianism. 8 John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism.

References to Utilitarianism will be in parentheses in the text. In quoting from Mill, an effort will be made to add the feminine pronoun when the masculine is used to refer to a rep- resentative human being. About this Mill says: “The pronoun he is the only one available to express all human beings; none having yet been invented to serve the purpose of designating them generally, without distinguishing them by a characteristic so little worthy of being the main distinction as that of sex. This is more than a defect in language; tending greatly to prolong the almost universal habit of thinking and speaking of one-half the human species as the whole.” A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive (bk.

2 P1: GRF CY255B-03 0 521 828325 September 18, 2003 13:38 Introduction The present work is conceived as a contribution to those dis- putes, both of interpretation and of the merits of Mill’s philo- sophical position. It is an effort to present an interpretation of the work as a whole and of its constituent parts, taking into consideration many of the conflicting interpretations found in philosophical literature, and to defend the essay against many of the objections that have been presented against it or its util- itarian philosophy. It is my belief that Mill’s version of utilitar- ianism is far clearer and more consistent than it is often made out to be, and that his version of utilitarianism is a plausible if not a totally defensible ethical theory. A complete defense of utilitarianism would require a refutation of all alternatives to it, or at least a discussion of other serious alternatives to show the superiority of utilitarianism.

I am not sure that such a compar- ison is possible, because alternatives may rest on metaphysical or dogmatic assumptions that are beyond rational discussion; but, in any case, it is not my aim to do that. Nevertheless, it is my aim to answer many of the standard objections to the theory. Thus this is a work of substantive moral philosophy as well as exegesis of a text. Mill’s essay is often read only in excerpts, and that can be misleading.

For example, Mill introduces utilitarianism in the following way: “The creed which accepts as the foundation of morals, Utility, or the Greatest Happiness Principle, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happi- ness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness” (210 [II, 2]). This formula is ambiguous in several ways. First, it appears to apply to each act that an agent might consider doing, case by case. Such an interpretation is what has been called “act-utilitarianism,” in contrast to “rule-utilitarianism” or other more complex versions of utilitarianism.

In Chapter 5 of Utilitarianism and in other writings, it is clear that Mill is not an act-utilitarian.